POL 101-UNIT 8

Module Coordinator
Dr Oshupeng Maseng
Senior Lecturer in Political Science
EXECUTIVE INSTITUTIONS
What are Executives?
The executive branch of government is one of the three main branches
of government, alongside the legislative and judicial branches. It is
responsible for implementing and enforcing laws and managing
government operations.
The structure and powers of the executive branch vary depending on the
form of government, but in democratic systems, it is typically headed by
an elected or appointed leader, such as a president, prime minister, or
monarch.
Key Features of the Executives
1. Head of State: In many countries, the executive branch includes the head of state, who serves as the ceremonial and symbolic
leader of the country. This role may be fulfilled by a monarch, president, or other dignitary, depending on the political system.
2. Head of Government: The executive branch also includes the head of government, who holds the primary responsibility for
leading the administration and implementing government policies. This role is often filled by a prime minister, president, or
chancellor.
3. Cabinet: The executive branch typically includes a cabinet or council of ministers appointed by the head of government to
oversee specific government departments and agencies. Cabinet members are often experts in their respective fields and play a
crucial role in policymaking and administration.
4. Administration: The executive branch is responsible for managing government operations, including the implementation of
laws, regulations, and policies. This involves overseeing government agencies, departments, and services that deliver public
services and enforce laws.
5. Commander-in-Chief: In countries with a presidential system, the head of state or government may also serve as the
commander-in-chief of the armed forces, with the authority to command and control the military.
6. Foreign Affairs: The executive branch is responsible for conducting foreign affairs and representing the country's interests
internationally. This includes negotiating treaties, engaging in diplomacy, and managing relations with other countries and
international organizations.
7. Executive Orders and Decrees: The head of government often has the authority to issue executive orders or decrees, which
have the force of law and can direct government agencies to take specific actions or implement policies without legislative
approval.
Powers and Functions
1. Implementing Laws: The executive branch is responsible for enforcing and executing laws passed by the legislative branch. This involves overseeing
government agencies, departments, and services to ensure that laws are implemented effectively.
2. Policy Making: The executive branch plays a central role in policy formulation and decision-making. The head of government, such as the president or
prime minister, often sets the policy agenda, proposes legislation, and develops strategies to address national priorities and challenges.
3. Administration: The executive branch is responsible for managing government operations and delivering public services to citizens. This includes
overseeing government agencies, departments, and services that provide education, healthcare, transportation, public safety, and other essential services.
4. Commander-in-Chief: In countries with a presidential system, the head of state or government serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
This role involves exercising command and control over the military and making decisions related to national defense and security.
5. Diplomacy and Foreign Relations: The executive branch is responsible for conducting foreign affairs and representing the country's interests
internationally. This includes negotiating treaties, engaging in diplomacy, and managing relations with other countries and international organizations.
6. Appointment and Removal: The executive branch has the authority to appoint and remove government officials, including cabinet members, agency
heads, ambassadors, and other key positions. These appointments are often subject to confirmation by the legislative branch.
7. Veto Power: In countries with a presidential system, the head of state may have the power to veto legislation passed by the legislative branch. This
serves as a check on the legislative process and allows the executive to prevent the enactment of laws deemed undesirable or unconstitutional.
8. Executive Orders and Decrees: The head of government often has the authority to issue executive orders or decrees, which have the force of law and
can direct government agencies to take specific actions or implement policies without legislative approval. These orders are typically used to address
urgent matters or implement existing laws.
9. Crisis Management: The executive branch is responsible for managing crises and emergencies, such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, or public
health emergencies. This involves coordinating response efforts, mobilizing resources, and ensuring the safety and well-being of citizens.
10. Budgetary Authority: The executive branch has significant influence over the budgetary process. It prepares and submits the annual budget proposal to
the legislative branch, outlining government spending priorities, revenue sources, and fiscal policies.
Legislative Powers of The Executive
1. Proposal of Legislation: The executive branch often initiates the legislative process by proposing bills and other legislative measures to
the legislative branch. These proposals reflect the government's policy priorities and agenda.
2. Legislative Agenda Setting: The executive branch often sets the legislative agenda by prioritizing certain issues and proposals for
consideration by the legislative branch. This agenda-setting power helps shape the focus and direction of legislative activity.
3. Negotiation and Compromise: The executive branch plays a role in negotiating and compromising with the legislative branch to
advance its policy objectives. This may involve working with legislators to amend bills, secure support for key initiatives, and build
coalitions.
4. Passage by the Legislature: Before a bill can be assented to by the executive, it must first be passed by the legislative branch, which may
consist of a parliament, congress, or similar body. The bill undergoes multiple readings, debates, and committee reviews before being
voted on by the members of the legislature.
5. Submission to the Executive: Once the bill is approved by the legislative branch, it is submitted to the head of state or government for
assent. In some systems, this step is purely ceremonial, while in others, the executive may have the authority to veto or reject the bill.
6. Review and Consideration: Upon receiving the bill, the head of state or government reviews its content, legal implications, and
conformity with the constitution. They may seek advice from legal experts or government advisors before making a decision.
7. Assent or Veto: After reviewing the bill, the head of state or government has the option to either assent to it, thereby making it law, or to
veto or reject it. If the executive assents to the bill, it becomes law and is formally enacted.
8. Potential Override: In some systems, the legislative branch may have the power to override a veto by the executive through a
supermajority vote. This allows the bill to become law even without the executive's approval.
9. Promulgation and Implementation: Once the bill has been assented to by the executive, it is promulgated and published as law.
Government agencies and officials are then responsible for implementing and enforcing the provisions of the new law.
 Parliamentary vs Presidential System
Parliamentary System
1. Executive Head: In a parliamentary system, the executive head
of government is the prime minister, who is typically the leader
of the majority party or coalition in the legislature (parliament).
2. Fusion of Powers: The prime minister is a member of the
legislature and is elected by fellow legislators. There is a fusion
of powers between the executive and legislative branches, with
the prime minister and the cabinet deriving their authority from
the legislature.
3. No Fixed Term: The prime minister's term of office is not fixed
and depends on the confidence of the legislature. The prime
minister can be removed from office through a vote of no
confidence or by losing the support of the majority in
parliament.
4. Collective Responsibility: The prime minister leads the cabinet,
which consists of ministers appointed from among members of
parliament. The cabinet operates on the principle of collective
responsibility, where decisions are made collectively, and
ministers are collectively accountable to parliament.
Presidential System
1. Executive Head: In a presidential system, the executive head of
government is the president, who is elected separately from the
legislature by the public or through an electoral college.
2. Separation of Powers: The president serves as both the head of state
and the head of government. There is a clear separation of powers
between the executive and legislative branches, with the president and
the legislature (congress or parliament) operating independently of
each other.
3. Fixed Term: The president serves a fixed term of office, and cannot
be removed from office by the legislature through a vote of no
confidence.
4. Executive Powers: The president has significant executive powers,
including the authority to appoint cabinet members, veto legislation
passed by the legislature, and serve as the commander-in-chief of the
armed forces.
5. Direct Accountability: The president is directly accountable to the
public through periodic elections. The president's popularity and
performance in office often influence the success of their
administration and reelection prospects.
The Executive in a Federal System
1. Division of Powers: In a federal system, governmental authority is divided between the national government and subnational governments
(such as states, provinces, or regions). Each level of government has its own executive branch responsible for certain areas of governance, as
defined by the constitution or federal laws.
2. National Executive: At the national level, there is typically a central executive branch headed by the head of state or government (e.g.,
president, prime minister), along with appointed officials and government agencies. The national executive is responsible for national defense,
foreign affairs, monetary policy, and other powers granted by the constitution or federal laws.
3. State or Provincial Executives: In addition to the national executive, each state or province within the federal system has its own executive
branch, which is responsible for administering state or provincial laws, delivering public services, and implementing policies within their
jurisdiction. State or provincial executives are typically led by governors, premiers, or chief ministers.
4. Shared Powers and Concurrent Jurisdiction: In some cases, certain powers and responsibilities may be shared between the national and
subnational governments, leading to concurrent jurisdiction. This can create complexities in governance and require cooperation and
coordination between different levels of government.
5. Intergovernmental Relations: In a federal system, the executive branches of the national and subnational governments must engage in
intergovernmental relations to address shared challenges, resolve disputes, and coordinate policy efforts. This may involve formal mechanisms
such as intergovernmental conferences, councils, or committees.
6. Federalism and Autonomy: Federal systems often provide subnational governments with a degree of autonomy and authority to govern their
respective jurisdictions independently. State or provincial executives have powers and responsibilities that are distinct from the national
executive, allowing them to address local needs and priorities.
7. Constitutional Framework: The powers and functions of the executive branch in a federal system are typically defined and constrained by
the constitution or constitutional arrangements. The constitution outlines the division of powers between the national and subnational
governments, as well as the respective roles and responsibilities of each level of government.
The Executive in a Unitary System
1. Centralized Authority: In a unitary system, governmental authority is concentrated in the central or national government, with little to no
autonomy granted to lower levels of government. The executive branch at the national level is typically responsible for making and
implementing laws, administering government operations, and representing the country domestically and internationally.
2. Head of Government: The executive branch in a unitary system is usually headed by the head of government, such as a prime minister or
president, who is appointed or elected to lead the executive branch and oversee government functions. The head of government may be
directly elected by the people or appointed by the head of state.
3. Cabinet and Ministries: The head of government is supported by a cabinet or council of ministers, who are appointed to oversee specific
government departments or ministries responsible for various areas of governance, such as finance, defense, education, and health. The cabinet
assists in policy formulation, decision-making, and administration of government affairs.
4. Administrative Centralization: The executive branch in a unitary system exercises direct control over regional or local administrations,
which typically have limited autonomy and authority. Regional or local governments may serve as administrative extensions of the central
government, implementing policies and programs determined by the national executive.
5. Unified Legal System: In a unitary system, there is typically a unified legal system with a single set of laws, regulations, and administrative
procedures applicable across the entire country. The national executive is responsible for enforcing and interpreting laws, ensuring uniformity
and consistency in legal matters.
6. Direct Accountability to the National Government: Regional or local administrations in a unitary system are accountable to the national
government and operate under its authority. The national executive may intervene in regional or local affairs to ensure compliance with
national laws and policies or to address governance issues.
7. Limited Subnational Autonomy: While some unitary systems may grant certain powers or responsibilities to regional or local governments,
these powers are usually delegated by the national government and can be revoked or modified at the discretion of the central executive.
Subnational governments typically have limited autonomy and are subject to centralized control.
The Executive and Foreign Policy
1. Diplomacy and International Relations: The executive branch conducts diplomacy and manages relations with other countries and international
organizations. This involves appointing diplomats, ambassadors, and envoys to represent the country abroad and negotiate agreements, treaties, and
alliances.
2. Foreign Affairs Agencies: The executive branch oversees government agencies and departments responsible for foreign affairs, such as the Department of
State or Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These agencies provide expertise, analysis, and advice on international issues, and implement foreign policy initiatives.
3. Foreign Aid and Assistance: The executive branch administers foreign aid programs and provides humanitarian assistance, development assistance, and
economic aid to other countries. This includes managing foreign aid budgets, coordinating relief efforts, and supporting development projects in
collaboration with international partners.
4. Defense and Security: The executive branch plays a key role in national security and defense policy, including military alliances, defense cooperation, and
strategic planning. The president or prime minister serves as the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and makes decisions related to national defense,
security strategy, and military operations.
5. Trade and Economic Relations: The executive branch shapes trade policy and economic relations with other countries through bilateral and multilateral
agreements, trade negotiations, and economic diplomacy. This includes promoting exports, attracting foreign investment, and addressing trade disputes and
barriers.
6. Crisis Management and Conflict Resolution: The executive branch manages crises, conflicts, and emergencies that affect international relations, such as
natural disasters, humanitarian crises, or geopolitical tensions. The president or prime minister may engage in diplomacy, mediation, and peacekeeping
efforts to resolve conflicts and promote stability.
7. International Treaties and Agreements: The executive branch negotiates and ratifies international treaties, agreements, and conventions on behalf of the
country. This includes treaties related to arms control, environmental protection, human rights, and trade regulation.
8. Public Diplomacy and Communication: The executive branch communicates foreign policy objectives and priorities to the public, the media, and
international audiences. This involves public diplomacy initiatives, cultural exchanges, and media outreach to promote understanding, cooperation, and
goodwill between countries.