Lecture PowerPoint

Chemistry
The Molecular Nature of
Matter and Change
Fifth Edition

Martin S. Silberberg
Chapter 6

Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and

Chemical Change
 Thermodynamic Intro to 1st LOT (E=q+w)

 Important terminologies
Thermochemistry  Important unit
 State Function

Determination of heat

Calorimetry Hess’s Law

Stoichiometry of (Theoretical)
(Lab Measurement)
Thermochemical
Equation Algebraic Method
Energy Cycle

Coffee-cup Bomb Formula (Hf or Hc)

Calorimeter Calorimeter
Born-haber Cycle
Constant P Constant V Bond Enthalpy
 What is…
Thermodynamic
 Study of energy and its transformation

Thermochemistry
 Study of heat involved in chemical/physical changes

1st Law of thermodynamic

 Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be

converted into another types of energy
 Nature of Energy
 All forms of energy are interconvertible
 An object has potential energy (PE) by
virtue of its position and kinetic energy
(KE) by virtue of its motion
 Ex: Bicyclist at the top of hill
 As the bicyclist move down the hill,
E transferred when an
its PE is converted into KE object is moved
 Some of the KE appears as work(w) and
some appears as heat(q)
E transferred between
system&surrounding that
result in T
 E = q+w
 Defining System & Surrounding

Open System
 can transfer mass and energy
across the boundaries
System Closed System
• Part of universe  can transfer energy only
we are focusing on across the boundaries

Isolated System
 Neither mass nor energy can
be transferred

Surrounding Universe
• Outside the system • Covers both system &
(rest of universe) surrounding
Figure 6.1 A chemical system and its surroundings.

the surroundings

the system
The system is composed of particles with
their own internal energies (E or U).

Therefore the system has an internal

energy. When a change occurs, the
internal energy changes (∆E).
 Figure 6.2 (pg 231)
Energy diagrams for the transfer of internal energy (E)
between a system and its surroundings.

E = Efinal - Einitial = Eproducts - Ereactants

 The Sign Conventions* for q, w and E
(+ve) : system (+ve) : work
absorbs heat done on system
Heat (q) Work (w)
(-ve) : system (-ve) : work done
releases heat by system

q + w = E

+ + +

+ - depends on sizes of q and

w

- + depends on sizes of q and w

- - -
 Euniverse = Esystem + Esurroundings = 0

Units of Energy

Joule (J) 1 J = 1 kg*m2/s2

calorie (cal) 1 cal = 4.184 J

Calorie 1 Cal = 1000 cal

British Thermal Unit 1 Btu = 1055 J

 Sample Problem 6.1 (pg 234)

 Gasoline burns in car engine  CO2 and H2O

(expand). Piston (surr) while expanding gas (syst)
Expanding gas do 451 J work on the piston.
System releases 325 J of heat.
ANS: -776 J, -0.0776 kJ , -0.185 kcal

 Follow up problem
Hint: 1 Btu = 1055 J 4.184 kJ 1055 J 1 kJ
E=q+w ; = -26.0 kcal x 1 kcal 15 Btu x x 1000 J
ANS: + 1 Btu
E= -93 kJ
 STATE FUNCTION

 A property dependent only on the current state of the

system (eg: composition, V, P, & T) NOT on the path the
system takes to reach that state.

 Energy, E is a state function

 Why?? ∆E does not depend on how the change take place

but only the difference between the final & initial states

 Let’s examine the analogy of combustion of octane

Figure 6.6 Two different paths for the energy change of a system.
(pg 235)

E=q E=q + w

E is lost almost -A portion of E is lost

entirely as heat as w to move the car
-remaining lost as heat

 E = q+w State Function

State ∆E, ∆P, ∆V, ∆T
Function Path taken during the
conversion
 Enthalpy (H)

Enthalpy change (∆H)

 heat flow between system&surrounding
under constant P when no forms of work is
done

E = q+w
E = q p = H
 Exothermic & Endothermic Processes
Enthalpy diagrams for exothermic and endothermic processes.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) H2O(s) H2O(l)

CH4 + 2O2 H2O(l)

Hinitial Hfinal
Enthalpy, H

Enthalpy, H
H < 0 heat out H > 0 heat in

CO2 + 2H2O H2O(s)

Hfinal Hinitial

A Exothermic process B Endothermic process

Figure 6.8 page (237)
 CALORIMETRY : Lab Measurement of Heat
Change
 Specific heat capacity (c) = q / mass x ∆T (J/g.K)
 Heat required to raise T by 1 K for 1 g of substances

 Heat capacity = q / ∆T (J/K)

 Heat required to raise T by 1 K

 In calorimeter this is the equation to determine heat

involved

q = m x c x T
q = Heat capacity x T
Table 6.2 Specific Heat Capacities of Some Elements,
Compounds, and Materials (at 298 K)
Substance Specific Heat Substance Specific Heat
Capacity (J/g*K) Capacity (J/g*K)

Elements Solid materials

aluminum, Al 0.900 wood 1.76
graphite,C 0.711 cement 0.88
iron, Fe 0.450 glass 0.84
copper, Cu 0.387 granite 0.79
gold, Au 0.129 steel 0.45

Compounds

water, H2O(l) 4.184

ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH(l) 2.46
ethylene glycol, (CH2OH)2(l) 2.42
carbon tetrachloride, CCl4(l) 0.862
Types of calorimetry We’ve to construct
the surrounding so
that sys+surr are
Calorimetry within the device
(Lab Measurement)

Coffee-cup Calorimeter Bomb Calorimeter

Constant P Constant V
Neutralisation/CombustionExothermic rxn
• we cannot measure heat released from
rxn(system) directly
• But we can measure heat absorbed by
surrounding(water/solution)

-qrxn=qsoln -qrxn=qcal
-qrxn= qbomb +qwater
Hrxn = qrxn / n
 Sample Problem 6.3 Finding the Quantity of Heat from Specific Heat
Capacity
pg 239
PROBLEM: A layer of copper welded to the bottom of a skillet weighs 125 g.
How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of the copper
layer from 250C to 300.0C? The specific heat capacity (c) of Cu
is 0.387 J/g*K.

PLAN: Given the mass, specific heat capacity and change in temperature, we
can use q = mass x c x T to find the answer. T in 0C is the same as for
K.

SOLUTION: 0.387 J
q= 125 g x x (300-25)0C = 1.33x104 J
g * C

Follow up Problem 6.3

ANS: -177 kJ
 Sample Problem 6.5 Determining the Heat of a Reaction
(pg240)
PROBLEM: 50.0 mL of 0.500 M NaOH is placed in a coffee-cup calorimeter at
25.00oC and carefully add 25.0 mL of 0.500 M HCl, also at 25.00oC.
After stirring, the final temperature is 27.21oC. Calculate qsoln (in J) and
Hrxn (in kJ/mol). d = 1.00 g/mL and c = 4.184 J/g*K
PLAN: Use volumes and density to find the mass of the water. Calculate the
moles of NaOH and HCl. Write balanced equations and determine the
limiting reactant. Calculate qsoln using the mass, c, and T and finally
dividing by the moles of water gives the heat per mole.

SOLUTION: Mass(25.0 + 50.0) mL x 1.00 g/mL= 75.0 g of solution

T = (27.21 – 25.00)oC = 2.21oC = 2.21 K qsoln = mass x specific heat x T
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) = 75.0 g x 4.184 J/g*K x 2.21 K
0.0125 mol 0.0250 mol
= 693 J
HCl is the limiting reactant, so 0.0125 mol H2O.
Hrxn =(-693 J/0.0125 mol H2O)(kJ/103 J)
= -55.4 kJ/ mol H2O formed
 After 50.0 mL 0.500 M Ba(OH)2 and same volume
Follow up Problem 6.5
and concentration of HCl react in a coffee-cup , qsoln
(pg240)
is 1.386 kJ. Calculate the Hrxn in kJ/mol of H2O
formed.

ANS: -55.4 kJ/mol

 Sample Problem 6.5 Calculating the Heat of Combustion

PROBLEM: A manufacturer claims that its new dietetic dessert has “fewer
than 10 Calories per serving.” To test the claim, a chemist at
the Department of Consumer Affairs places one serving in a
bomb calorimeter and burns it in O2 (the heat capacity of the
calorimeter = 8.151 kJ/K). The temperature increases 4.937oC.
Is the manufacturer’s claim correct?
PLAN: - q sample = qcalorimeter

SOLUTION: qcalorimeter = heat capacity x T

= 8.151 kJ/K x 4.937 K

= 40.24 kJ

40.24 kJ kcal = 9.63 kcal or Calories

4.184 kJ

The manufacturer’s claim is true.

 A chemist burns 0.8650 g of graphite in a bomb
Follow up Problem 6.6
calorimeter, and CO2 forms. If 393.5 kJ of heat is
(pg240)
released per mole of graphite and T is 2.613 K,
what is the heat capacity of the bomb calorimeter?
ANS: 10.85 kJ/K

Follow up Problem 6.47 A hydrocarbon of 1.520 g is burned in a bomb of

(pg256) calorimeter which is immersed in 2.550 L of water.
The water T rose from 20.00 to 23.55 C. Heat
capacity of of bomb (excluding water) is 403 J/K.
What is the Hrxn in kJ/g?

ANS: -25.86 kJ/g

 STOICHIOMETRY OF
THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATION
 What is Thermochemical Equation?

 Thermochemical Eq:
 A balanced equation that includes the H information
 Physical states for each substances must be indicated
 H refers to the amounts and phys states in that equation

Sign
 H of reverse rxn is in opposite sign

2 aspects

Magnitude
 H is proportional to amount of subs (H  n)
 2 H2O(l) → 2 H2 (g) + O2(g) H = 572 kJ
 Decomposition of 2 mol of water to its elements is an
endothermic rxn
Sign
2 H2 (g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) H = -572 kJ
 Formation of 2 mol of water from its elements is an
exothermic rxn

H2 (g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) H = ½ (-572) kJ

 H for formation of 1 mol of water from its elements is Magnitude
half the preceding amount

Figure 6.11 Summary of the relationship between amount (mol) of

substance and the heat (kJ) transferred during a reaction.
 Sample Problem 6.7 Using the Heat of Reaction (Hrxn) to Find
(pg 243) Amounts
PROBLEM: The major source of aluminum in the world is bauxite (mostly
aluminum oxide). Its thermal decomposition can be represented by
Al2O3(s) 2Al(s) + 3/2O2(g) Hrxn = 1676 kJ

If aluminum is produced this way, how many grams of aluminum can

form when 1.000x103 kJ of heat is transferred?

PLAN: heat (kJ)

1676 kJ = 2 mol Al

mol of Al
xM

g of Al
SOLUTION: 1.000x103 kJ x 2 mol Al 26.98 g Al
= 32.20 g Al
1676 kJ 1 mol Al
Follow up Problem 6.7

Hydrogenation rxn : C2H4 + H2 → C2H6 Hrxn = -137 kJ/mol (given off)

How much heat is released when 15.0 kg of C2H6 forms?

ANS: -68.5 x 103 kJ

 HESS’S LAW:

FINDING ∆H OF A
REACTION THAT OCCURS
IN A SERIES OF STEPS
 HESS’S LAW

Not all rxn can be determined directly.

Hess’s law is applicable to determine ∆Hrxn
for rxn that occurs in a series of steps.
The enthalpy change of an overall process is

the sum of the enthalpy changes of its

individual steps= ∆H1 + ∆H2 +……+ ∆Hn
∆H overall
 Hess’s Law

Hess’s Law Identify target equation

(with unknown H)
(Theoretical)
Manipulate each equation
Algebraic Method (change sign / multiply@divide
the mol and H by a factor)

Energy Cycle
Add the manipulated
equations
Formula (Hf or Hc )

Born-haber Clycle
Bond Enthalpy
Hess’s Law (Algebraic Method & Energy Cycle)
Ex: Oxidation of S to SO3

Algebraic Method Energy Cycle

S(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → SO3(g) H3 =??

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) H1= -296.8 kJ
Manipulation
Divide by 2 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g) H2= -198.4 kJ

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) H1= -296.8 kJ 3/2O2(g)

S(s) SO3(g)
SO2(g) + ½ O2(g) → SO3(g) H2= -99.2 kJ H3
H1 ½ H2

(g)
S(s) + 3/2 O2(g) → SO3(g) H3 = -396.0 kJ

O2

2
(g)

O
½
SO2(g)
H3 = H1 + (1/2 H2)
H3 = -296.8 + -99.2 kJ = -396.0 kJ
 Sample Problem 6.8 Using Hess’s Law to Calculate an Unknown H
(pg 245)
PROBLEM: Two gaseous pollutants that form in auto exhaust are CO and
NO. An environmental chemist is studying ways to convert them
to less harmful gases through the following equation:
CO(g) + NO(g) CO2(g) + 1/2N2(g) H = ?

Given the following information, calculate the unknown H:

Equation A: CO(g) + 1/2O2(g) CO2(g) HA = -283.0 kJ

Equation B: N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) HB = 180.6 kJ

PLAN: Equations A and B have to be manipulated by reversal and/or

multiplication by factors in order to sum to the first, or target, equation.

SOLUTION: Multiply Equation B by 1/2 and reverse it.

CO(g) + 1/2O2(g) CO2(g) HA = -283.0 kJ
NO(g) 1/2N2(g) + 1/2O2(g) ½HB = ½ (-180.6 kJ) = -90.3 kJ

CO(g) + NO(g) CO2(g) + 1/2N2(g) Hrxn = -373.3 kJ

 Follow up Problem 6.8
(pg 245)
PROBLEM: Nitrogen oxides undergo many rxn in the environment and in
industry. Given the following information, calculate H for the
overall equation; 2NO2(g) +1/2 O2 (g)  N2O5(s)
N2O5(s)  2NO(g) + 3/2 O2(g) H1 = 223.7 kJ
NO(g) + ½ O2(g)  NO2(g) H2= -57.1 kJ
SOLUTION:

ANS: -109.5 kJ
 STANDARD ENTHALPIES OF REACTION
(∆H rxn)
 Chemists have established a set of specific
conditions called standard state:

 Pressure is 1 atm for a gas

 Concentration is 1 M for an aqueous solution
 Temperature is 25 C
 Enthalpies and their definitions:

Standard enthalpy of formation:

The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a substance
is formed from its elements under standard
conditions.
H2(g) + ½ O2(g)  H2O(l) Hf =

Standard enthalpy of combustion:

The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a pure
substance is completely burned in excess oxygen
under standard conditions.
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(l) Hc =
 Enthalpies and their definitions:

Standard enthalpy of neutralization:

The enthalpy change when 1 mole of H+ reacts
with 1 mole of OH- to produce 1 mole of H2O under
standard conditions.
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)  H2O(l) Hneut =

Standard enthalpy of solution/dissolution

The enthalpy change when 1 mole of solid ionic
compound dissolves into its aqueous ions under
standard conditions.
NaOH(s)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Hsoln=
 Enthalpies and their definitions:

 Standard enthalpy of solution/dissolution

NaOH(s)  Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Hsoln=

Hsoln
NaOH(s) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

HLE
Hhyd

Na+(g) + OH-(g)

Hsoln =HLE+ Hhyd

 Enthalpies and their definitions:

Standard enthalpy of hydration:

The enthalpy change when 1 mole of a gaseous ion
is hydrated at standard conditions.
Na+(g)  Na+(aq) Hhyd =

Lattice energy:
The enthalpy change when 1 mole of solid ionic
compound breaks into its gaseous ions.
NaCl(s)  Na+(g) + Cl-(g) HLE =
 Enthalpies and their definitions:

Standard enthalpy of atomization (for an element):

The heat absorbed when 1 mole of a gaseous atoms
is formed from its elements under standard
conditions.
½ Cl2(g)  Cl(g) Hatom =
Na(s)  Na(g) Hatom =
Standard enthalpy of atomization (for a compound):
The enthalpy change when 1 mole of compound in
its gaseous state is broken into its gaseous atoms
under standard conditions.
NH3(g)  N(g) + 3H(g) Hatom =
 FORMATION EQUATIONS & THEIR STANDARD ENTHALPY CHANGES
(∆H f)

Formula H0f (kJ/mol) Formula H0f (kJ/mol) Formula H0f (kJ/mol)

Calcium Silver
Cl2(g) 0
Ca(s) 0 Ag(s) 0
HCl(g) -92.3
CaO(s) -635.1 AgCl(s) -127.0
CaCO3(s) -1206.9 Hydrogen
H(g) 218 Sodium
Carbon
H2(g) 0 Na(s) 0
C(graphite) 0
C(diamond) 1.9 Nitrogen Na(g) 107.8
CO(g) -110.5 N2(g) 0 NaCl(s) -411.1
CO2(g) -393.5 NH3(g) -45.9 Sulfur
CH4(g)in Table-74.9
The values 6.3 make NO(g) 90.3 S8(rhombic) 0
CH3OH(l)
2 points:-238.6 S8(monoclinic) 0.3
Oxygen
1) HCN(g)
For an element 135
in its SO2(g) -296.8
O2(g) 0
standard
CSs(l) state, ∆H
87.9f = 0
O3(g) 143 SO3(g) -396.0
2) Most compounds have a
Chlorine H2O(g) -241.8
negative ∆H f
Cl(g) 121.0 H2O(l) -285.8
Table 6.3 Selected Standard Heats of Formation at 25oC (298K)
 Sample Problem 6.9 Writing Formation Equations
(pg 246)
PROBLEM: Write balanced equations for the formation of 1 mol of the following
compounds from their elements in their standard states and include
H0f.
(a) Silver chloride, AgCl, a solid at standard conditions.
(b) Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, a solid at standard conditions.

(c) Hydrogen cyanide, HCN, a gas at standard conditions.

PLAN: Use the table of heats of formation for values.

SOLUTION:

(a) Ag(s) + 1/2Cl2(g) AgCl(s) Hof = -127.0 kJ

(b) Ca(s) + C(graphite) + 3/2O2(g) CaCO3(s) Hof = -1206.9 kJ

(c) 1/2H2(g) + C(graphite) + 1/2N2(g) HCN(g) Hof = 135 kJ

 Hess’s Law (Formula)

 The information required are either Hof or Hoc

Horxn =  mHof(products) -  nHof(reactants)

Horxn =  mHoc(reactants) -  nHoc(products)

 Sample Problem 6.10 Calculating the Heat of Reaction from Heats of
pg 248 Formation
PROBLEM: Nitric acid, whose worldwide annual production is about 8 billion
kilograms, is used to make many products, including fertilizer, dyes,
and explosives. The first step in the industrial production process is
the oxidation of ammonia:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Calculate Horxn from Hof values.

PLAN: Look up the Hof values and use Hess’s Law to find Hrxn.

SOLUTION: Hrxn =  mHof (products) -  nHof (reactants)

Hrxn = [4(Hof NO(g) + 6(Hof H2O(g)] - [4(Hof NH3(g) + 5(Hof O2(g)]

= (4 mol)(90.3 kJ/mol) + (6 mol)(-241.8 kJ/mol) -

[(4 mol)(-45.9 kJ/mol) + (5 mol)(0 kJ/mol)]

Hrxn = -906 kJ
 Follow up Problem 6.10
pg 248
PROBLEM: Use the following to find Hof of methanol [CH3OH(l)]
CH3OH(l) + 3/2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g) Horxn = -638.5 kJ
Hof of CO2(g) = -393.5 kJ/mol
Hof of H2O(g) = -241.8 kJ/mol

SOLUTION:

ANS: -238.6 kJ
 Hess’s Law (Born-Haber Cycle)

 Born-Haber cycle shows a systematic sequence of

a series of chosen H from elements to ionic
compound.
 In general, Born-Haber cycle involves 5 types of H
1) Hf Metal: Formation of free gaseous atom
from its solid
2) Hatom
3) HIE Non-metal: Formation of free gaseous atom from its
molecule
4) HEA
5) HLE
 Figure 9.6 The Born-Haber cycle for lithium fluoride.
There are 2 different paths:
 Direct combination of element to ionic solid
 Multistep path
Element  geaseous atoms  gaseous ions
 Hess’s Law (Born-Haber Cycle)
 Born-Haber cycle for formation of LiF(s)

1) Li(s) + ½ F2(g)  LiF(s) Hf = -617 kJ

2) Li(s)  Li(g) Hatom(Li) = -161 kJ

3) ½ F2(g)  F(g) Hatom(F) = 79.5 kJ @

F2(g)  2F(g) HBE(F2) = 159 kJ

1) Li(g)  Li+(g) + e- HIE = 520 kJ

2) F(g) + e-  F-(g) HEA= -328 kJ

3) LiF(s)  Li+(g) + F-(g) HLE = ???

Figure 9.6 The Born-Haber cycle for lithium fluoride.

-HLE

Hf = H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 + (-HLE)

Try to construct Born-Haber cycle for RbCl
(workbook page 70 Q.14)

ANS:
696 kJ
Exercise
Given;
1)Hf of CaF2 = -1220 kJ/mol
2)Hatom of Ca = +178 kJ/mol
3) Hatom of F = +79.5kJ/mol
4)H1st IE of Ca = +590 kJ/mol
5)H2nd IE of Ca+ = +1150 kJ/mol
6)HEA of F = -328 kJ/mol
i)Construct Born-Haber cycle for the formation of calcium fluoride
ii)Calculate the HLE of CaF2
SOLUTION:

ANS: 2641 kJ/mol

Hess’s Law (Born-Haber Cycle)

Which of the following

has greater LE?

NaCl or KCl

LiF or MgF2
 Hess’s Law (Bond Enthalpy)
Bond Enthalpy : Enthalpy change required to break a
particular bond in 1 mol of gaseous molecule
Ex: H2(g)  H(g) + H(g) BE= 436.5 kJ
2XHatom[H,g]

 For polyatomic molecule, BE used is in average

value
Ex: H-O-H (g)  H(g) + OH(g) BE1= 502 kJ
Average
O-H (g)  O(g) + H(g) BE2= 427 kJ BE= 467 kJ

 There is small discrepancy between H obtained from

BE method and H obtained from other methods
 Normally BE gives less accurate because the value used
is in average only.
Horxn =  BE(reactants) -  BE(products)
 Sample Problem 9.3
Using Bond Energies to Calculate HOnxn
pg 347
PROBLEM: Calculate Horxn for the chlorination of methane to form chloroform:

H Cl
H C H + 3 Cl Cl H C Cl + 3 H Cl
H Cl

bonds broken bonds formed

PLAN: Calculate the number of bonds broken and formed utilizing the bond
energies found in Table 9.2.
SOLUTION: 3 C-Cl = 3 mol(-339 kJ/mol) = -1017 kJ
4 C-H = 4 mol(413 kJ/mol) = 1652 kJ
1 C-H = 1 mol(-413 kJ/mol) = -413 kJ
3 Cl-Cl = 3 mol(243 kJ/mol) = 729 kJ 3 H-Cl = 3 mol(-427 kJ/mol) = -1281 kJ

Hobonds broken = 2381 kJ H0bonds formed = -2711 kJ

Horeaction = Hobonds broken + Hobonds formed = 2381 kJ + (-2711 kJ)

= - 330 kJ
Follow up Problem 9.3
N2(g) + 3 H2(g)  2 NH3(g) Hrxn=???
pg 348

ANS: -105 kJ
 Pop Quiz: Thermodynamic
PART II [10 marks]

1 (a) Define standard enthalpy change of dissolution. [2]

(b) Write thermochemical equation for standard enthalpy change of dissolution of
NaCl(s). [1]

2 348.45 J of heat was absorbed by solid X when it is heated from 40°C to 85°C. What is the
specific heat capacity if the mass of solid X is 8.9g? [2]

3 Calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation of methane by using energy cycle
method. [3]
C(s) + 2 H2(g) → CH4(g) ΔHºf = x kJ/mol
Given that;
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔHºc = -891 kJ/mol
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔHºc = -393 kJ/mol
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔHºc = -286 kJ/mol

4 State two factors that affect lattice energy. [2]