Biology Unit 2 Cells

Summarised Notes + Specific spec points

Structure of eukaryotic cells-3.2.1.1
• Cell surface membrane-
• Nucleus-
• Mitochondria
• Chrloroplast-
• Golgi Apparatus
Structure of eukaryotic cells-3.2.1.1
• Lysosomes
• Rough Endoplasmic Recticulum
• Smooth endoplasmic recticiulum
• Cell wall
• Cell vacuole-
Structure of eukaryotic cells-3.2.1.1
• What are specialiosed cells organised into | tissues, organs and organ
systems
• Adaptations of eukaryotic cells |
Structure of prokaryotic cells and of viruses-
3.2.1.2
• Main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cells | prokaryotic cells are much smaller and contain
different organelles
• Prokaryotic cells have a cytoplasm that: lacks
membrane bound organelles, smaller ribosomes, no
nucleus, a cell wall (made from murein
glycoprotein), Plasmids, capsule and flagella
Structure of prokaryotic cells and of viruses-
3.2.1.2
• What is a virus | acellular and non living
• How is a virus aceullar and non living |
• Structure of virus particles | genetic material, capsid and attacment
protein
Methods of studying cells-3.2.1.3
• Principle of optical/light microscope:
• Advantage of optical/light microscope 
• Disadvantage of optical/light microscope 
Methods of studying cells-3.2.1.3

• Principle of TEM microscope:

• Advantage of TEM microscope 
• Disadvantage of TEM microscope 
Methods of studying cells-3.2.1.3

• Principle of SEM microscope:

• Advantage of SEM microscope 
• Disadvantage of SEM microscope 
Methods of studying cells-3.2.1.3
• Formula for magnification | magnification=size of
image/size of real object
• Magnification:
• Resolution:
• How to identify starch grains in plant cells | use iodine
in potassium iodide
Methods of studying cells-3.2.1.3

•Cell fractionation-
•Cell ultracentrifugation-
Cells arise from other cells-3.2.2
• What do eukaryotic cells that do retain the ability to divide
show | A cell cycle
• Stages of cell cycle: Interphase. mitosois then cytokinesis occurs
• When does DNA replication occur | Interphase
• Mitosis | part of cell cycle in which a eukaryotic cell divides to
produce two daughter cells, each with the identical copies of
DNA produced by the parent cell during DNA replication
• Cytokinesis| occurs after mitosis usually producing two new
cells by dividing the cytoplasm
Cells arise from other cells-3.2.2
Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase:
• Prophase:
• Metaphase:
• Anaphase:
• Telophase:
Cells arise from other cells-3.2.2
• What does uncontrolled cell division lead to | formation
of tumours and of cancers, many cancer treatments are
directed at controlling the rate of cell division
• Binary fission process: replication of circular DNA and
of plasmids then division of the cytoplasm to produce
two daughter cells each with a single copy of the circular
DNA and a variable number of copies of plasmids
Cells arise from other cells-3.2.2
• Why do viruses not undergo cell division? As they are non living
• How do viruses replicate? Injection of their nucleic acid, the infected
host cell replicates the virus particles
Required Practical 2: Mitosis
 Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
Structure of cell surface membranes (Fluid Mosaic Model)
 ‘Fluid’=because individual phospholipids can
move, membrane is a flexible structure
constantly changing shape
 ‘Mosaic’=proteins embedded in phospholipid
bilayer vary shape, size and pattern scattered
around
• Micelles= spheres where the bilayer has its
phosphate hydrophilic head facing towards the
water but hydrophobic fatty acid tail facing away
from the water
Cholesterol | plays a key role in the control of cell fluidity (has
• Hydrophobic center prevents water soluble
hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions)
(polar) molecules from easily passing through
Unsaturated fats=cause the cell membrane to become less fluid
Saturated fats=cause the cell membrane to become more fluid
because they are charged
Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
• Intrinsic proteins |fully embedded in the membrane from one side to the other with
hydrophobic amino acids
• Channel protein (type of intrinsic protein) | contain a channel running through a center
to transport charged molecules such as ions it is filled with water and controls exchange
• Carrier protein (type of intrinsic protein) |can change their shape or position to transfer
molecules or ions from one side of the membrane to the other
• Extrinsic proteins |found on one side of the membrane, some play a structural role and
others can act as enzymes while some are receptors for other molecules such as hormones
• Glycolipid | carbohydrate molecule attached to a membrane protein act as receptors,
roles in immune system
• Glycoprotein | attached to extrinsic proteins on membrane, act as receptors
Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
• Simple diffusion | net movement of particles down a concentration gradient from
a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
• Facilitated diffusion | Form of passive transport that involves the movement of
molecules with the concentration gradient without the need for energy but using
transmembrane proteins to move in and out of cell
• Osmosis | net movement of water molecules from an area of less
negative water potential to an area of more negative water potential
• Active transport | mode of transport which moves substances against the
concentration gradient using carrier proteins and ATP (from respiration)
• Co transport| Type of active transport which uses carrier proteins
Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
How active transport works
(1) Molecule or ion binds to carrier protein in the plasma membrane at the
receptor site
(2) ATP binds to protein on other side causing it to split by hydrolysis into
ADP + phosphate
(3) Protein changes shape and opens opposite site of membrane
(4) Molecule or ion is released on other side
(5) ATP is reformed, and protein reverts to original state
Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
How co transport works
1)Glucose molecules pass through small intestine (lumen) where they
must pass through the epithelial cells to get into the bloodstream
2)Epithelial cells are adapted with sodium ions (Na+) which are actively
transported into the blood to maintain the concentration gradient
3)The co transporter protein moves the sodium and glucose together
down the concentration gradient bringing the glucose from the lumen
into the epithelial cell
4)The glucose and sodium then move from the epithelial cell down the
concentration gradient into the bloodstream using facilitated diffusion
Transport across cell membranes-3.2.3
• Limitation of simple diffusion imposed by nature of bilayer in
SD: large,non polar molecules and ions cannot pass through as
they are too large/charged
• Role of carrier + channel proteins in FD:
• Role of carrier proteins and hydrolysis of ATP in active transport:
• How can cells be adapted for rapid transport? Increase in surface
area (allows quicker diffusion), increase number of protein
channels and carrier molecules in their membranes, difference in
gradients
Required Practical 3: dilution series of a solute to produce a
calibration curve with which to identify the water potential of
plant tissues
Required Practical 4: Investigation into the effect of a named
variable on the permeability of cell surface membranes
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Antigen | foreign substances which are usually proteins, capable of eliciting the
immune response (production of antibodies)
• Effect of antigen variability on disease and disease prevention | some pathogens
exhibit antigen variability (the antigens present on their surface change frequently due to genetic
mutations) e.g. cold + flu-this poses a problem for the immune system as these are only
complementary to the shape of one antigen, memory cells can no longer bind, and no secondary
immune response can occur (host gets infected and suffers from disease again)
• Phagocytes | WBC produced continiously in the bone marrow, carry out non
specific immune responses, two types are neutrophils and macrophages
• Phagocytosis | process of recognizing and engulfing a pathogen
• Function of lysozymes in phagocytosis | aids digestion of bacteria
• How is each cell unique in terms of surface | specific molecule on surface that
identifies pathogens, non self cells, abnormal body cells and toxins
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Response of T lymphocytes to a froeign antigen (Cellular response) | Has
to do with T cells which target pathogens inside cells
• Role of APC in cellular response |present the antigen on the cell surface
to bind to
• Role of helper T cells |stimulate B cells to divide and secrete antibodies
• Role of C cells cytotoxic (B cells)|kill abnormal cells and infected voyd
cells via perforin
• Role of phagocytes | phagocytes are attracted by a substance because it
recognises the antigen on the surface
• Types of T lymphocytes | helper t cells, cytotoxic cells and memory cells
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• B lymphocytes- produced and mature in bone marrow and is involved
in humoral immune response
• T lymphocytes- Porduced in the bone marrow but matures in the
thymus gland and is associated with cellular imune response
Phagocytosis process
(1)-phagocyte engulfs to form a phagosome
(2)-phagosome fuses with the lysosome to make a phagolysosome
(3)-this releases the enzymes which then digest the bacteria present
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
The response of B lymphocytes to a foreign antigen
(humoral response) | has to do with B cells (makes antibodies)
without T cells we can’t activate B cells so we cannot create plasma/memory cells

• Role of clonal selection |

• Role of monoclonal antibody release |
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Antibody |
• Antibody structure |
• Formation of antigen antibody complex |
• Destruction of the antigen |
• Limited to agglutination |
• Phagocytosis of bacterial cells |
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Role of plasma cells |
• Role of memory cells |
• Primary immune response |
• Secondary immune response |
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Use of vaccines |
• Herd immunity-
• Active immunity-
• Passive immunity-
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Structure of HIV |
• Replication of HIV in helpter T cells |
• How does HIV cause symptoms of AIDS?
• Why are antibitiocis ineffective against viruses?
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
Uses of monoclonal antibodies
Targeting medication- to specific cell types by
attaching a therapeutic drug to an antibody
Medical Diangosis
Pregnancy tests  ELISA test
Cell recognition and the immune system-
3.2.4
• Ethical issues associated with the use of vaccines + monoclonal
antibodies |
• Use of antibodies in the ELISA test |