ITT302

INTERNETWORKING WITH
TCP/IP

Text Books
1.Douglas E Comer, “Internetworking with TCP/IP Principles, Protocol, and Architecture” ,
Volume 1, 6th Edition, Pearson Education, 2013
2.Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, Prentice Hall, 5th Edition
3.James F Kurose, Keith W Ross, Computer Networking: A top Down Approach featuring
the Internet, Pearson Education, 3rd Edition
Syllabus (module 3)
3.1 Routing Architecture – Cores, Peers and Algorithms, Routing among Autonomous
system – BGP - The Scope Of A Routing Update Protocol, Determining A Practical Limit On
Group Size, Autonomous System Concept, Exterior Gateway Protocols And Reachability,
BGP Characteristics, BGP Functionality And Message Types

3.2 outing Within An Autonomous System (RIP, RIPng, OSPF, ISIS)- Introduction, Static Vs.
Dynamic Interior Routes, Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Slow Convergence Problem,
Solving The Slow Convergence Problem, The Disadvantage Of Using Hop Counts, Delay
Metric (HELLO), Delay Metrics, Oscillation, And Route Flapping, The Open SPF Protocol
(OSPF).
3.3Internet Multicasting – Introduction, Hardware Broadcast, Hardware Multicast,
Ethernet Multicast, The Conceptual Building Blocks Of Internet Multicast, The IP
Multicast Scheme, IPv4 And IPv6 Multicast Addresses, Multicast Address Semantics,
Mapping 2 Hours INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IP Multicast To Ethernet Multicast, Hosts
And Multicast Delivery, Multicast Scope, Multicast Routing.
 The Scope Of A Routing Update Protocol
Fundamental principle guides the design of a routing
architecture: no routing update protocol can scale to allow all
routers in the global Internet to exchange routing information.

Instead, routers must be divided into separate groups, and

routing protocols designed to operate within a group. There are
three reasons that routers must be divided:

 Traffic. Even if each site only has a single network, no

routing protocol can accommodate an arbitrary number of
sites, because adding sites increases routing traffic — if the
set of routers is sufficiently large, the routing traffic becomes
overwhelming.
 Indirect Communication. Because they do not share a
common network, routers in the global Internet cannot
communicate directly. In many cases, a router is far from the
center of the Internet, meaning that the only path the
router can use to reach all other routers goes through many
intermediate hops.
 Administrative Boundaries. In the Internet, the networks
and routers are not all owned and managed by a single
entity. More important, shortest paths are not always used!
Instead, large ISPs route traffic along paths that generate
revenue or have lower financial cost. Therefore, a routing
architecture must provide a way for each administrative
group to control routing and access independently.
Determining A Practical Limit On Group Size
what internet size is considered large? If only a limited
set of routers can participate in an exchange of routing
information, what happens to routers that are excluded?
Do they function correctly?
 Delay. The main delay of interest is not how long it takes a
single routing update message to propagate. Instead, the
question concerns convergence time, the maximum delay
until all routers are informed about a change.
In an internet with N routers arranged in a linear topology, N
steps are required. Thus, N must be limited to guarantee rapid
distribution of information

 Overhead. The issue of overhead is also easy to understand.

Because each router that participates in a routing protocol
must send messages, a larger set of participating routers
means more routing traffic.
To ensure that routing traffic remains a small percentage of the
total traffic on the underlying networks, the size of routing
messages must be limited.
Autonomous System Concept
 A group of networks and routers controlled by a single
administrative authority is called an Autonomous System
(AS). The idea is that we will let each autonomous system
choose its own mechanisms for discovering, propagating,
validating, and checking the consistency of routes.

 .o make it possible for automated routing algorithms to

distinguish among autonomous systems, each is assigned an
autonomous system number by the central authority that is
charged with assigning all Internet numbers.
Exterior Gateway Protocols And
Reachability
 Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) to denote any
protocol used to pass network reachability
information between two autonomous systems.
Strictly speaking, an EGP is not a routing protocol
because advertising reachability is not the same as
propagating routing information.
 Currently, a single EGP is used to exchange
reachability information in the Internet. Known as the
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP),
BGP Characteristics
 Inter-Autonomous System Communication. Because BGP is designed as
an exterior gateway protocol, its primary role is to allow one
autonomous system to communicate with another.

 Coordination Among Multiple BGP Speakers. If an autonomous system

has multiple routers each communicating with a peer in an outside
autonomous system, a form of BGP known as iBGP can be used to
coordinate among routers inside the system to guarantee that they all
propagate consistent information.

 Propagation Of Reachability Information. BGP allows an autonomous

system to advertise destinations that are reachable either in or through
it, and to learn such information from another autonomous system.

 Policy Support. Unlike most distance-vector protocols that advertise

exactly the routes in the local forwarding table, BGP can implement
policies that the local administrator chooses. In particular, a router
running BGP can be configured to distinguish between the set of
destinations reachable by computers inside its autonomous system and
the set of destinations advertised to other autonomous systems
 Reliable Transport. BGP is unusual among protocols that pass
routing information because it assumes reliable transport.  Authentication. BGP allows a
Therefore, BGP uses TCP for all communication. receiver to authenticate
messages (i.e., verify the
 Path Information. Instead of specifying destinations that can be identity of a sender).
reached and a next hop for each, BGP uses a path-vector paradigm
in which advertisements specify path information that allows a
receiver to learn a series of autonomous systems along a path to
the destination.

 Incremental Updates. To conserve network bandwidth, BGP does

not pass full information in each update message. Instead, full
information is exchanged once, and then successive messages carry
incremental changes called deltas.

 Support For IPv4 and IPv6. BGP supports IPv4 classless addresses
and IPv6 addresses. That is, BGP sends a prefix length along with
each address.

 Route Aggregation. BGP conserves network bandwidth by allowing

a sender to aggregate route information and send a single entry to
represent multiple, related destinations (e.g., many networks
owned by a single AS).
BGP Functionality And Message Types
BGP peers perform three basic functions.
 The first function consists of initial peer acquisition and
authentication. The two peers establish a TCP connection
and perform a message exchange that guarantees both sides
have agreed to communicate.

 Second function forms the primary focus of the protocol —

each side sends positive or negative reachability
information. That is, a sender can advertise that one or
more destinations are reachable by giving a next hop for
each, or the sender can declare that one or more previously
advertised destinations are no longer reachable.

 The third function provides ongoing verification that the

peers and the network connections between them are
functioning correctly.
To handle the three functions described above, BGP defines
five basic message types
Thank you