CHAPTER V:

ULTRASOUND
TRANSDUCERS
 CHAPTER V

I. INTRODUCTION

• Utz transducer is a device which converts

one form of energy to another.

• Converts electrical energy into sound

(mechanical) energy, and vice versa.
 CHAPTER V

II. TRANSDUCER
• Diagnostic transducers act as both a
transmitter and receiver of UTZ.
 CHAPTER V

• Components and construction of a typical

transducer
1. Physical housing assembly
2. Electrical connections
3. Piezoelectric elements
4. Backing materials
5. Acoustic lens
6. Impedance matching layer
 CHAPTER V

1. Physical housing
• This contains all the individual components.

• Provides the necessary structural support

and acts as an electrical and acoustic
(mechanical) insulator.
 CHAPTER V

2. Electrical Connections

• Two electrical connections are

formed on the front and back face
of the crystal by plating a thin film
of gold or silver on these
surfaces.
 CHAPTER V

3. Piezoelectric elements
• Piezoelectric effect which was discovered by
Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880.
• Curie Brothers

• They found that certain crystalline minerals

when subjected to a mechanical force
became electrically polarized which means
that they generated voltages, vice versa.
 CHAPTER V

• Thinner piezoelectric materials produce

higher resonant frequencies.

Low Frequency High Frequency

3 MHz 10MHz
 CHAPTER V

FREQUENCY VS. RESOLUTION

 The frequency also affects the QUALITY of the ultrasound
image

The HIGHER the frequency, the BETTER the

resolution

The LOWER the frequency, the LESS the

resolution
 CHAPTER V

FREQUENCY VS. RESOLUTION

A 15 MHz transducer has very good

resolution, but cannot penetrate very deep
into the body

A 3 MHz transducer can penetrate deep into

the body, but the resolution is not as good
as the 15 MHz
 CHAPTER V

4. Backing materials

• Backing material shortens the

ultrasound pulse length which improves
AXIAL RESOLUTION.
 CHAPTER V

• We are only interested in the vibrations that

come off the front face of the transducer.

• To try to eliminate the vibrations from the

back face, and to control the length of
vibrations from the front face, a backing or
damping material is used.
 CHAPTER V

• Damping/ Backing material:

1. Araldite loaded with tungsten powder
2. Plastic
3. Cork
4. Rubber
5. Epoxy resin
 CHAPTER V

5. Acoustic lens

• The purpose: to improve image lateral

resolution by reducing the beam width of
the transducer.

• The width of the beam determines the

LATERAL RESOLUTION
 CHAPTER V

• The lateral resolution is the ability

to resolve structures across or
perpendicular to the beam axis.
 CHAPTER V

Acoustic Lens materials:

1. Aluminium
2. Perspex
3. Polystyrene
 CHAPTER V

6. Impedance matching layers

• An acoustic impedance matching layer

is sandwich between the piezoelectric
crystal and the patient.
• High-purity gamma alumina powder.
 CHAPTER V

• The difference in acoustic impedance

between the crystal and the soft tissues
within the patient is large (>15 times)

• Without this matching layer:

• ZR= 80% ; ZT=20%
 CHAPTER V

Spatial Pulse Length (SPL)

SPL RESOLUTION
• Length of a pulse from front to
back.
• SPL= length of each cycle times
SPL RESOLUTION
the number of cycles in the pulse.
• Shorter pulse length improves
resolution.
 CHAPTER V

The spatial pulse length (SPL)

usually decreases with
frequency
 CHAPTER V

SPL FREQUENCY

SPL FREQUENCY
 CHAPTER V

III. TYPES OF ELECTRONIC

ARRAY TRANSDUCERS
• Linear Array transducers
• Convex transducers
• Sector transducer
 CHAPTER V

A. Linear Array transducers

• Produces a parallel scan lines

• Rectangular field of view.

• The width of this image is approximately

equal to the length of the transducer head.
 CHAPTER V

• Vascular (vessels), small parts

and musculoskeletal
applications.
• Breast, scrotum and thyroid Utz
• Operate at frequencies typically
above 4MHz.
 CHAPTER V

B. Convex transducers

• Convex in shape which provides a wide field

of view which diverges with depth.
 CHAPTER V

• Abdominal and obstetric scanning

except echocardiography.

• Operates at 3.5 MHz; best suited to

image deep lying structures.
 CHAPTER V

C. Sector Transducers

• Fan shaped, almost triangular.

• Used whenever there is only small
space available.
 CHAPTER V

• The small footprint and wide field of

view
• Cardiac ultrasound
• Cranial ultrasound
• Gynaecological (TVS transducer)
 CHAPTER V

ACOUSTIC COUPLING
AGENT
 CHAPTER V

ACOUSTIC COUPLING AGENT

• Purpose : “To prevent air between the transducer

and the skin of the patient”
• ↑ GEL = ↓ REFLECTION = ↑ TRANSMISSION
• Often referred to as “gel”
• ph 5-10

• Too much gel is far better than not enough!

 CHAPTER V

ACOUSTIC COUPLING AGENT

INGREDIENTS:
1. Carbomer
2. EDTA (Edetic Acid)
3. Propylene glycol
4. Trolamine
5. Distilled water
 CHAPTER V

1. Carbomer

• It is a white, fluffy, acidic.

Hygroscopic powder with a slight
characteristic odour
 CHAPTER V

2. EDTA (Edetic Acid)

• A white crystalline powder, very

slightly soluble in water. Soluble
in solutions of alkali hydroxides.
 CHAPTER V

3. Propylene glycol

• A colourless, odourless, viscous

hygroscopic liquid with a slight
sweet taste.
 CHAPTER V

4. Trolamine

• A clear, colourless or slightly

yellow, odourless, viscous
hygroscopic liquid.
 CHAPTER V

FORMULA
Carbomer 10.0 g
EDTA 0.25 g
Propylene glycol 75.0 g (72.4 ml)
Trolamine 12.5 g (11.2 ml)
Distilled water Up to 500 g (500 ml)
 CHAPTER V

CONTROLS OF UTZ
EQUIPMENT
 CHAPTER V

1. Power or Output Control

This controls the strength of the
voltage spike applied to the crystal at
pulse emission.

↑power = ↑intensity
 CHAPTER V

1. Power or Output Control

↑power = ↑intensity = ↑ strength

of echo =↑ px utz dose

Gain
 CHAPTER V

2. Depth/F.O.V. Control

 Allows to increase or decrease the

depth of the FOV on the monitor
 ↓ depth = ↑ area of interest = ↑
visualization
 CHAPTER V

3. Gain
 Refers to the degree
of amplification applied to all
returning echo signals.

 Adjust the overall brightness of the

image
 CHAPTER V

4. Time Gain Compensation (TGC)

 Allows adjustment of brightness

of a specific depth of the image
 CHAPTER V

5. Focal zone
 Focal zone should always be
placed at the depth of interest on
the utz image in order to ensure the
best Lateral resolution
 CHAPTER V

6. Zoom/ Res

 Allow magnification of the areas of

the UTZ image displayed on the
monitor
CHAPTER VI:

RESOLUTION
 CHAPTER VI

RESOLUTION is a term which describes

the ability of an imaging system to
differentiate between structures, images or
events and display them as separate
entities.
 CHAPTER VI

Categories of resolution:

1. Spatial resolution  resolution in space

2. Contrast resolution  resolution of gray
shades
3. Temporal resolution  resolution in time.
 CHAPTER VI

1. SPATIAL RESOLUTION

• This is the ability to display two structures

situated close together as separate images.

• also called Detail Resolution

• highest frequency
 CHAPTER VI

F R P A

F R P A
 CHAPTER VI

Two components:

1. Axial resolution resolution down the

screen

2. Lateral resolution resolution across the

screen
 CHAPTER VI

1. Axial resolution or Longitudinal

resolution
SPL A.R
– This is resolution along the axis of the
beam and depends upon the spatial pulse
length
SPL A.R
– a short pulse length gives good axial
resolution
 CHAPTER VI

• Axial resolution depends upon the

wavelength
• Axial resolution can be improved by
using higher frequency transducer.
• Axial resolution is the ability to
distinguish two objects parallel to
the ultrasound beam
 CHAPTER VI

• Axial resolution is also referred to as:

1. Linear
2. Longitudinal
3. Depth
4. Range
(LLARD)
 CHAPTER VI

• Axial resolution FORMULA:

• AR= SPL / 2
or
• AR = (# cycles in the pulse x
wavelength)/2
 CHAPTER VI

2. Lateral resolution or Azimuthal

resolution
– This is resolution at right angle to the
beam and depends upon the beam width

– a narrow beam width gives better lateral

resolution
 CHAPTER VI

• Lateral resolution is the ability to

distinguish two objects
BEAM WIDTH LATERAL
OR RESOLUTION
perpendicular to the ultrasound
BEAM DIAMETER
beam
BEAM WIDTH LATERAL
OR RESOLUTION
• Lateral resolution
BEAM DIAMETER depends upon the
beam diameter
 CHAPTER VI

• Lateral resolution is also referred to as:

1. Azimuthal
2. Transverse
3. Angular
4. Horizontal
(LATAH)
 CHAPTER VI

• The smaller the size of the

transducer, the better is the
lateral resolution.

• The higher the frequency, the

better is the lateral resolution.
 CHAPTER VI

2. CONTRAST RESOLUTION
• Contrast resolution is the ability of the
imaging system to differentiate
between body tissues and display them
as different shades of gray.
 CHAPTER VI

3. TEMPORAL RESOLUTION

• This is the ability of the imaging system to

display events which occurs at different
times as separated images.

• This is important when looking at rapidly

moving structures such as heart beating.
 CHAPTER VI

3. TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
• Temporal resolution is the ability to detect
that an object has moved over time.

• TR is synonymous with frame rate.

(TR=FR)

• Typical frame rates in echo imaging systems

are 30-100 Hz.
 CHAPTER VI

3. TEMPORAL RESOLUTION
• Frame rate
 CHAPTER VII:

ULTRASOUND INTERACTIONS
AND ATTENUATIONS
 CHAPTER VII

Attenuation as the ultrasound

beam travels through the body it
loses energy.
The intensity and the amplitude of
the sound wave decreases, and
this process is known as
attenuation.
 CHAPTER VII

• A variety of processes cause attenuations, but the

5 main processes to be considered are:
1. Absorption
2. Reflection
3. Scattering
4. Refraction
5. Divergence
 CHAPTER VII

1. ABSORPTION

• This is the main factor causing attenuation

of the ultrasound beam.

• The higher the frequency of sound wave, the

greater the amount of absorption that will
occur.
 CHAPTER VII

• Bone will have a much higher absorption

coefficient than soft tissue.

• Absorption occurs when ultrasound energy

is lost to tissues by its conversion to heat.

• Higher frequency waves undergo greater

absorption.
 CHAPTER VII

2. REFLECTION

• Reflection means the waves are thrown back

• Gas and skeleton = high reflection = mismatch
• Chest ultrasound

• Interface much larger than wavelength

CHAPTER VII
 CHAPTER VII

3. SCATTERING

• This occurs when an ultrasound wave

strikes a boundary or interface between
two small structures, and the wave is
scattered in different directions.

• Interface much smaller than wavelength –

(Rayleigh scattering, RBC)
 CHAPTER VII

• More scattering will be noted at higher

frequency.
 CHAPTER VII

4. REFRACTION

• When the beam encounters an interface

between two different tissues at an oblique
angle, the beam will be deviated as it travels
on through the tissue.

• interfaces between tissues of differing

speeds of sound
 CHAPTER VII

• If the angle of incidence is 90O, no refraction

will occur.

• DEVIATION
• BENDING
• CHANGE IN DIRECTION
 CHAPTER VII

5. DIVERGENCE

• As a beam of ultrasound travels through

tissue, it will diverge due to diffraction
effects.
• This divergence will result in the same
power spread over a large area.
• The intensity of the beam will therefore be
reduced.
CHAPTER VII
CHAPTER VIII:

ARTIFACTS
 CHAPTER VIII

• An ultrasound artifact is an
additional, missing or distorted
image which does not conform to
the real image of the part being
examined.
 CHAPTER VIII

• Different types of UTZ artifacts

1. Reverberation
2. Acoustic shadowing
3. Acoustic enhancement
4. Edge shadowing
5. Side lobe artifacts
6. Mirror image
7. Double image
8. Equipment-generated artifacts
 CHAPTER VIII

1. REVERBERATION

• This is the production of spurious

(false) echoes due to repeated
reflections

• Comet tail
 CHAPTER VIII

• Artifacts appearing as parallel, equally

spaced lines is called reverberation
• Reverberation artifacts are a result of
the presence of two or more strong
reflecting surfaces
• Shotgun wound
 CHAPTER VIII

2. ACOUSTIC SHADOWING
• This appears as an area of low
amplitude echoes (hypoechoic or
anechoic) behind an area of strongly
attenuating tissue.
 CHAPTER VIII

• If the shadowing contains ringdown

echoes, it is likely to be gas.

• If the shadowing is clear shadowing,

absent of any ringdown, it is likely to be
a calculus

• Calcified mass
 CHAPTER VIII

3. ACOUSTIC ENHANCEMENT

• This artifact appears as a localized

area of increased echo amplitude
behind an area of low attenuation.
 CHAPTER VIII

• Can commonly be seen distal, posterior,

behind to fluid filled structures such as:

• urinary bladder, the gallbladder or a cyst.

 CHAPTER VIII

• Acoustic enhancement is caused

by weakly attenuating structures.

• Fluid filled mass

 CHAPTER VIII

4. EDGE SHADOWING

• Occurring at the edges of rounded

structures will result in an edge
shadowing artifact.
 CHAPTER VIII

5. SIDE LOBE ARTIFACT

• The energy within the ultrasound beam

exists as several side lobes radiating at a
number of angles from a central lobe.
 CHAPTER VIII

6. MIRROR IMAGE ARTIFACT

• These artifacts result in a mirror image of a

structure.

• They arise due to specular reflection of

the beam at a large smooth interface.
 CHAPTER VIII

• fluid-air interface.
• Diaphragm, Heart, Liver
 CHAPTER VIII

7. DOUBLE IMAGE ARTIFACT

• This artifact is caused by refraction of the

beam and may occur in areas such as the
rectus abdominis muscle on the anterior
abdominal wall.
 CHAPTER VIII

8. EQUIPMENT-GENERATED ARTIFACTS

• Incorrect use of the equipment controls can

lead to artifacts appearing.

• ↑ GAIN = ↑ NOISE
 CHAPTER VIII

8. EQUIPMENT-GENERATED ARTIFACTS
 CHAPTER IX:

OPERATIONAL MODE
 CHAPTER IX

OPERATIONAL MODES

Mode is an operational state that a

system has been switched to.
 CHAPTER IX

OPERATIONAL MODES
1. Static imaging mode
2. Dynamic Imaging modes
3. Ranging mode
 CHAPTER IX

1. Static imaging mode

 A-mode
 B-mode
 CHAPTER IX

2. Dynamic Imaging modes

 M-mode
 Real-time
 CHAPTER IX

3. Ranging mode

• Doppler mode
 CHAPTER IX

1.) A-MODE display (Amplitude Mode)

 Echoes are shown as peak and

the distance between the various
structures can be measured.
Strength , depth , height of echo.
 CHAPTER IX

1.) A-MODE display (Amplitude Mode)

A-Mode, or Amplitude Modulation, is

the display of amplitude spikes of
different heights.
 CHAPTER IX

2.) B-MODE display (Brightness mode)

• 2D mode; Static Mode

• The echoes are seen as bright dots
which the position of the reflecting
structures on a two- dimensional image
 CHAPTER IX

3.) M-MODE display (Motion-mode)

This can be used to determine the

velocity of specific organ structures.
This is analogous to recording
a video in ultrasound.
 CHAPTER IX

Sometimes called…

1. TM mode (time-motion mode);

2. PM- mode (position-motion mode)
3. UCH (ultrasonic cardiography)
 CHAPTER IX

4.) Doppler Ultrasound

Christian Johann Doppler noted in
1842
 CHAPTER IX

4.) Doppler Ultrasound

This mode makes use of the
Doppler effect in measuring and
visualizing blood flow
 CHAPTER IX

The Doppler shift frequency is in

the audible range, and therefore an
audio amplifier and speaker are
all that is necessary to listen to the
fetal heart, called utz stethoscope.
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Basic concept:
In doppler sonography of blood vessels, a narrow beam of
ultrasound is transmitted into the body from a doppler transducer.

when the ultrasound beam intersects a blood vessel or a cardiac

chamber, a small fraction of the ultrasound beam will be reflected
from the RBCs.

.
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Terms and definitions:
doppler shift/frequency- the difference b/w the
frequency of echoes received by the transducer and the
frequency of the ultrasound transmitted from the
transducer; this shift in frequency is directly
proportional to the blood flow velocity.
doppler shift= freq(transmitted) – freq(echoes)
= velocity(blood flow)
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• When measuring blood flow velocity, the doppler
frequency shift is within the range of human
hearing.
• > Advantage: the sound provided by the doppler
ultrasound is helpful to the examiner in localizing the
blood vessels and in semi-quantitative assessment of
flow patterns and velocity (note: it is important to
emphasize that the sound provided by doppler does not
provide an accurate figure of the exact quantification
of the blood flow velocity; it only serves as a guide)
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Doppler applications
Two principal ways of transmitting and receiving
ultrasound:
1. continuous wave mode (CW)
2. pulsed doppler mode (PD)
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• 1. continuous wave doppler (“1 crystal talks, another listens”)

> technique in which the transducer emits and receives the

ultrasound beam continously, enabling the measurement of high
velocity blood flow (e.g. heart valve stenosis)
> this mode contains separate crystals within the transducer (where
one continuously transmits, while the other continuously receives
the echoes)
> the velocities are measured from a large range of depths
simultaneously
> however, it is not able to selectively measure velocities at a
particular predetermined depth (no depth precision)
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• 2. Pulsed doppler (“crystal talks, then listens”)
> only one crystal is used to transmit ultrasound waves and
receive echoes
> the ultrasound beam is transmitted as brief pulses and the
echoes are registered in the waiting time b/w pulse transmissions
(time from pulse transmission to echo reception= depth at which velocities are being
measured)
> allows to measure flow velocities from very small volumes
(sample volumes) along the ultrasound beam. However, the maximum
measurable velocities are considered lower than those measurable
than continuous wave doppler.
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
Other forms of doppler scans:

• 3. duplex doppler
• 4. color doppler
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• 3. Duplex doppler
> a combination of real time
sonography and doppler
sonography (spectral and
color flow)
> the direction of the
doppler beam is
superimposed on the B-mode
image
> permits accurate
anatomical location of the
blood flow under
investigation
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
Color doppler of common carotid artery
4. Color doppler
•

> color is superimposed on real

time B-mode image which allows
simultaneous visualization of
anatomy and flow dynamics

> form of pulse wave doppler in

which energy of the returning
echoes is displayed as an
assigned color
red- echoes representing flow towards
the transducer
blue- echoes representing flow away from
the transducer
• Power Doppler is a technique that uses the amplitude of
Doppler signal to detect moving matter. Power Doppler:
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Doppler shift/effect:
~ When is it observed?
Answer: It is observed whenever the source of waves
is moving with respect to an observer. [In
ultrasonography, when a blood vessel(source of the
sound waves) is examined by a sonographer(observer)].
It is further observed when there is an
apparent upward shift in frequency for observers
towards whom the source is approaching and an
apparent downward shift in frequency for observers
from whom the source is receding.
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Basic concept:
In doppler sonography of blood vessels, a narrow beam of ultrasound is transmitted
into the body from a doppler transducer.

when the ultrasound beam intersects a blood vessel or a cardiac chamber, a small
fraction of the ultrasound beam will be reflected from the RBCs.

Two interactions are obtained:

1. if the RBCs are flowing towards the doppler transducer,
the echoes reflected will have a higher frequency than the one
emitted by transducer
2 when RBCs flow away from the transducer, the echoes
will have a lower frequency than the emitted one.
 TRANSDUCERS
Display Modes
• Uses of Doppler:
~ determination of anatomy
~ determination of small vessel flow distribution
~ detection of vascular dilatation, obstruction
~ evaluation of intravascular disease
~ detection of extravascular flow
 CHAPTER IX

***End***