Molten rock is called magma if

it occurs within the lithosphere and

becomes lava when the molten rock
Igneous rocks form is extruded on Earth’s surface through
whenever molten rock cools volcanic activity.
and minerals crystallize to
produce a solid rock. Hence
the prerequisite for the
formation of igneous rocks is
the melting of rocks.
Where does
magma
form?
 Magma forms whenever
Where does the conditions of pressure and
magma
form? temperature cause a solid rock
start melting. This happens to
primarily in three major
geological settings:

Mid-ocean

ridges

Subduction
Igneous rocks are classified
according to their texture (coarse-
TEXTUR
grained vs. fine-grained) and their E
chemical and mineralogical CHEMICAL AND
compositions. MINERALOGICAL
COMPOSITIONS
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
ROCK TEXTURE

EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

These rocks cool rapidly on or very near the

Earth’s surface. The rapid cooling is due to the
great difference in temperature between the hot
molten rock and the relatively cool surrounding
environment. These rocks are fine-grained
since minerals crystallize too rapidly to form
large crystals.
 BASALT
Basalt is a major component of the
oceanic crust and produced in great
abundance at mid-ocean ridges.
The extremely fast cooling of
lava extruded on Earth’s surface
results in the production of
volcanic glass in which atoms do
not have time to form a regular
crystal lattice.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
ROCK TEXTURE

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

These rocks cool slowly within the Earth’s

crust. The slow cooling enables minerals to
grow large. The texture of these rocks is
coarse-grained. An example of an
intrusive igneous rock is granite.
  CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
CHEMICAL
AND MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITIONS

• Igneous rocks enriched in silica (SiO2) and silicates rich in Al,

K, and Na (e.g. feldspar) are called felsic (from feldspar and
silica). These rocks are characteristic of the continental crust.

• Igneous rocks with a high proportion of silicates rich in Mg

and Fe (e.g. olivine) are called mafic (from magnesium and
ferric). These rocks are particularly abundant in the oceanic
crust.

• Igneous rocks composed of a large proportion of silicate of Mg

and Fe (e.g. olivine, (Fe, Mg)2SiO4) are called ultramafic.
Ultramafic rocks are characteristic of the upper mantle.
Peridotite is a rock composed mostly of olivine and pyroxene
and is believed to be a major constituent of the Earth’s mantle.
TYPES OF
IGNEOUS
ROCK
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCK
Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of
molten rock material and are categorized based
on their origin, texture, and mineral composition.
They are broadly classified into two main types:
intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volcanic) rocks.
These types of igneous rocks are classified further
based on their mineral content, which affects their
color, density, and other physical properties.
Understanding these classifications helps
geologists
infer the conditions under which the rocks
formed and the geological history of an area.
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC)
IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks form from GRANITE
magma
that cools
the and
Earth's solidifies
surface.
belowcool slowly, they tend to
they
Because
DIORITE
have large, visible crystals.
Common examples include: PERODITITE
GABBRO
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS

GRANITE: A coarse-
grained rock composed mainly of
quartz, feldspar, and mica. It is
commonly used in construction
and monuments.
DIORITE: A coarse-grained rock that
is intermediate in composition between
granite and gabbro, containing
plagioclase feldspar and hornblende.

PERODITITE: A dense, coarse-

grained rock composed mostly of olivine
and pyroxene, it is the main constituent
of the Earth's mantle.
GABBRO : A dark,
coarse-grained rock containing
pyroxene and plagioclase
feldspar, often used as crushed
stone or in road construction.
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS

DIORITE: A coarse-grained rock that

is intermediate in composition between
granite and gabbro, containing
GRANITE: A coarse-grained plagioclase feldspar and hornblende.

rock composed mainly of

quartz, feldspar, and mica. It is GABBRO : A dark, coarse-
grained rock containing pyroxene and

commonly used in construction plagioclase feldspar, often used as

crushed stone or in road construction.

and monuments.
PERODITITE: A dense,
coarse-grained rock composed
mostly of olivine and pyroxene, it
is the main constituent of the
Earth's mantle.
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS

GABBRO : A dark, coarse-

DIORITE: A coarse-grained rock
that is intermediate in composition
between granite and gabbro,
grained rock containing pyroxene and
plagioclase feldspar, often used as
crushed stone or in road construction.
PERODITITE: A dense,
coarse-grained rock composed
mostly of olivine and pyroxene,

containing plagioclase feldspar and it is the main constituent of the

Earth's mantle.

hornblende.
GRANITE: A coarse-grained
rock composed mainly of
quartz, feldspar, and mica. It is
commonly used in
construction and monuments.
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
PERODITITE: A dense,
coarse-grained rock composed
mostly of olivine and pyroxene, it
is the main constituent of the

GABBRO: A dark, coarse- Earth's

mantle.

grained rock containing pyroxene GRANITE: A coarse-grained

rock composed mainly of quartz,
and plagioclase feldspar, often feldspar, and mica. It is
commonly used in construction
used as crushed stone or in road and monuments.

construction. DIORITE: A coarse-grained

rock that is intermediate in
composition between granite
and gabbro, containing
plagioclase feldspar and
hornblende.
INTRUSIVE (PLUTONIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS
GRANITE: A coarse-grained
rock composed mainly of quartz,
feldspar, and mica. It is

PERODITITE: A dense, coarse- commonly used in construction

and monuments.

grained rock composed mostly

of olivine and pyroxene, it is the DIORITE: A coarse-grained rock that is
intermediate in composition between

main constituent of the Earth's granite and gabbro, containing

plagioclase feldspar and hornblende.

mantle.
GABBRO: A dark, coarse-
grained rock containing pyroxene
and plagioclase feldspar, often
used as crushed stone or in road
construction.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
ANDESITE
ROCKS BASALT
These rocks form from lava that
cools and solidifies on the RHYOLITE
Earth's surface. they SCORIA
cool quickly, they tend to have
Because
fine-grained or glassy textures. OBSIDIAN
Common examples include: PUMMICE
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
ROCKS ANDESITE RHYOLITE
BASALT
OBSIDIAN
A dark, fine-grained rock
SCORIA
composed mainly of plagioclase
and pyroxene. It is the most PUMMICE
common volcanic rock and
forms much of the ocean floor.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
OBSIDIAN
ROCKS RHYOLITE
ANDESITE
PUMMICE
A fine-grained rock that is
intermediate in composition BASALT
between basalt and rhyolite, often SCORIA
found in volcanic arcs associated
with subduction zones.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
PUMMICE
ROCKS OBSIDIAN
RHYOLITE
SCORIA
A light-colored, fine-grained rock ANDESITE
rich in silica, with minerals such BASALT
as quartz and feldspar.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
SCORIA
ROCKS
OBSIDIAN PUMMICE

BASALT
A natural volcanic glass
RHYOLITE
formed from rapid cooling of
lava, known for its sharp ANDESITE
edges and use in cutting tools.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
BASALT
ROCKS SCORIA
PUMMICE
ANDESITE
A light, porous rock that forms OBSIDIAN
from explosive volcanic
RHYOLITE
eruptions. Its low density
allows it to float on water.
EXTRUSIVE
(VOLCANIC) IGNEOUS
ANDESITE
ROCKS BASALT
SCORIA
RHYOLITE
A dark, vesicular rock that forms PUMMICE
from lava containing abundant OBSIDIAN
gas bubbles. It is often used as
a lightweight aggregate in
construction.
SPECIALIZED
TYPES
Some igneous rocks don't fit neatly into the intrusive or
extrusive categories and are recognized for their unique
features or formation processes:

Pegmatite: Extremely coarse-grained rocks that form

during the final stages of
magma crystallization, often containing large crystals and
rare minerals.

Porphyry: Rocks that have a mixed texture, with large crystals

(phenocrysts) embedded in a finer-grained groundmass, indicating a complex
cooling history.
PROPERTIES
Igneous rocks have various properties that help geologists identify and
classify them. These properties are influenced by the mineral
composition, texture, and the environment in which the rocks formed.
Here are the key properties of igneous rocks:

• TEXTURE
The texture of igneous rocks is determined by the size, shape, and
arrangement of the crystals or grains within the rock. It provides clues
about the cooling history of the magma or lava.
•Phaneritic: Coarse-grained texture with crystals large enough to be seen
without a microscope, indicating slow cooling.

• Aphanitic: Fine-grained texture with crystals too small to be seen without

a microscope, indicating rapid cooling.

• Porphyritic: A mixed texture with larger crystals (phenocrysts) embedded

in a
finer-grained matrix, indicating a complex cooling history.

• Glassy: Texture with no crystals, indicating very rapid cooling.

• Vesicular: Texture with many cavities (vesicles) formed by trapped gas

bubbles.

• Pegmatitic: Extremely coarse-grained texture with very large crystals,

• MINERAL COMPOSITION
The mineral composition of igneous rocks determines their color and density
and provides information about the chemical composition of the original
magma.

• Felsic: High in silica, light-colored minerals such as quartz, feldspar, and

muscovite. These rocks are generally lighter in color.

• Intermediate: Contains a mix of light and dark minerals such as plagioclase

feldspar, amphibole, and biotite. These rocks have medium colors.

• Mafic: Rich in magnesium and iron, with dark-colored minerals such as

pyroxene, olivine, and amphibole. These rocks are generally darker in color.

• Ultramafic: Extremely rich in magnesium and iron, with very dark minerals,
mostly olivine and pyroxene. These rocks are typically very dark or greenish.
• DENSITY
Density is influenced by the mineral composition. Mafic and ultramafic
rocks are denser than felsic rocks due to their higher content of heavy
minerals like pyroxene and olivine.

• COLOR
The color of igneous rocks ranges from light (felsic) to dark (mafic and
ultramafic) based on their mineral content. Felsic rocks are typically
light- colored, while mafic and ultramafic rocks are darker.
• HARDNESS
Igneous rocks are generally hard and resistant to weathering and
erosion,
making them durable materials for construction and other applications.
• CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The chemical composition of igneous rocks varies based on the original
magma.
This composition is often expressed in terms of silica content:
• Felsic: >65% silica
• Intermediate: 52-65% silica
• Mafic: 45-52% silica
• Ultramafic: <45% silica

• APPLICATION
Igneous rocks have diverse applications due to their unique properties such as
hardness, durability, and aesthetic appeal.
• APPLICATION
In construction, granite is extensively used for building facades, flooring,
countertops, and monuments due to its durability and aesthetic qualities. Basalt is
commonly used as crushed stone in construction projects, including road base
and concrete aggregate, while gabbro is similarly used for road construction
and concrete production. In industrial contexts, pumice is valued for its light,
porous nature, making it useful as an abrasive in products like soaps and
exfoliants, and in lightweight concrete and insulation. Obsidian, known for its
glassy texture and sharp edges, has historical applications in tool-making and
modern uses in surgical scalpels.

Decorative and artistic uses of igneous rocks include granite and basalt in
sculptures, monuments, and landscaping. Obsidian is also popular in jewelry
making due to its unique appearance.
• APPLICATION
For infrastructure, basalt and diabase are essential in asphalt pavements for
their hardness and durability, while granite is used for curbstones, paving
stones, and bridge construction. In agriculture, perlite, an expanded volcanic
glass, improves soil aeration and drainage, and pumice enhances soil
conditioning by retaining moisture and improving aeration.

In chemical and metallurgical industries, basalt and gabbro serve as raw

materials for chemical production and as flux stones to remove impurities in
metallurgy. Peridotite is occasionally used in extracting minerals like nickel.
Environmentally, basalt is researched for carbon sequestration potential, where it
can react with CO2 to form stable carbonate minerals, and pumice is utilized in
water filtration systems due to its porosity.
• APPLICATION
Educationally, common igneous rocks like granite, basalt, and rhyolite are
used to teach geology due to their distinct properties and availability.
Historically and culturally, obsidian holds significance for making tools,
weapons, and ornaments, providing archaeological insights into ancient
trade routes and technologies. Granite and basalt have been used in
historical monuments and structures, illustrating ancient engineering and
architectural practices.

Additionally, scoria is used in landscaping for drainage and as heat-

insulating material in barbecue grills and chimneys, while tuff, a type of
volcanic rock, is employed in some regions for building due to its ease
of cutting. These applications underscore the versatility and importance of
igneous rocks across various industries, from construction and
manufacturing to agriculture and environmental management.
COMPOSITION AND
MINERALS
Igneous rocks are mostly made of the most common
elements found in the Earth’s crust.

 Oxygen
 Silicon
 Aluminum
 Iron
 Calcium
 Magnesium
 Potassium
The two most common elements found in almost all igneous rocks
are silicon and oxygen, which makes them silicates. Igneous rocks'
composition is measured in weight percent silica (wt% SiO2), which
varies from roughly 45 to 78. Magnesium and iron concentrations are
higher in low silica rocks. High silica rocks, on the other hand, contain
more potassium and sodium and less iron and magnesium.

BASED ON COMPOSITION, IGNEOUS ROCKS ARE

PRIMARILY DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES:
• Mafic - high in magnesium and iron (and low in silica)
• Silicic - high in silica (and low in magnesium and iron)
 GRANITE
BASALT
OBSIDIAN

PEGMATITE

DIORITE

PUMICE

SCORIA GABBRO

ANDESITE
RHYOLITE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrN7jygu4cQ
MECHANICS
ROCK MECHANICS
Rock mechanics is a branch of geology that deals with the mechanical behavior
of rocks and the study of the physical and mechanical properties of rocks,
such as their strength, deformation behavior, and response to external
stresses. The study of rock mechanics involves the application of
principles from physics, geology, and engineering to understand the
behavior
of rocks under
processes or various conditions,
in manmade such as inThe
structures. natural geological rock
is crucial in many areas of geology knowledge of and mechanics as
engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering,
engineering, such
and geotechnical
seismology.
Rock mechanics is important in geology for several
reasons:

 Understanding geological processes

 Engineering applications
 Resource exploration
 Hazard assessment
TYPES OF ROCK
STRESS
Rocks can experience different types of stress, including compression,
tension, and shear stress.

COMPRESSION
This type of stress occurs when rocks are squeezed or pressed together.
It causes rocks to become shorter and wider in the direction of the
applied force. Compression is a common type of stress in areas where
tectonic plates are colliding, such as in mountain building regions.
TENSION SHEAR STRESS
This type of stress when This type of stress occurs when
rocks occurs are apart. It
pulled rocks
rocks to become
causeslonger and thinner are subjected
them to slide topast
forces
eachthat
other in
in the direction of the cause
opposite directions. It causes
appliedTension is a common type of
force. rocks
to deform or break along a plane of
stress in areas where weakness. Shear stress is a
plates are moving away from
tectonic type of stress in areas where tectonic
common
each
other, such as in the middle. of plates are sliding past each other,
oceanic ridges. such as in faults.
HOW THESE TYPES OF STRESS AFFECT ROCK
BEHAVIOR
The different types of stress that rocks can experience have a significant
impact on their behavior. Here are some examples of how each type of stress
affects rock behavior:
COMPRESSION
When rocks are subjected to compression, they tend to become shorter and
wider in the direction of the applied force. This can lead to deformation or
fracturing of the rock, depending on the strength of the rock and the
magnitude of the stress. For example, Rocks in mountain-building regions
may be compressed to the point of folding or faulting, resulting in the
formation of mountains.
TENSION
When rocks are subjected to tension,
they tend to become longer and thinner
in the direction of the applied force. This
can lead to the formation of fractures or
cracks in the rock, which can eventually
propagate and cause the rock to break
apart. In some cases, Tension can also
cause rocks to become weaker, as the
stress causes microcracks to form and
grow, reducing the overall strength of
the rock.
SHEAR STRESS
When rocks are subjected to shear stress,
they tend to deform or break along a
plane of weakness. This can lead to the
formation of faults, where two blocks of
rock slide past each other. In some
cases, shear stress can also cause
rocks to become stronger as the stress
can cause the grains in the rock to
become more tightly packed, increasing
the overall strength of the rock.
ROCK DEFORMATION
There are different types of rock deformation, including:
ELASTIC DEFROMATION:
This type of deformation
occurs when rocks are
subjected to a stress that
causes them to deform, but
when the stress is
removed, the rock returns
to its original shape. Elastic
Deformation is reversible
and temporary, and it
happens when rocks are
not stressed beyond their
elastic limit.
DUCTILE DEFROMATION: This BRITTLEDEFROMATION:
type type of deformation
This
of deformation occurs when occurs
when rocks are subjected to
rocks are subjected to a stress stress that causes
that causes them to deform break them to or Brittle
permanently and without Deformation happens when
fracture.
fracturing. Ductile deformation rocks are stressed beyond
happens when rocks are their elastic limit, and the rock
stressed undergoes irreversible
beyond their elastic limit, and the deformation. Brittle
rock undergoes plastic Deformation often results in
deformation. Ductile deformation the development of faults or
often results in the development joints in rocks.
of folds or cleavage planes in
rocks.
ROCK STRENGTH
Rock strength is a measure of the ability of a rock to resist failure. under an applied stress. The strength of a
rock is determined by its internal cohesion and frictional resistance, as well as the orientation and spacing of
pre- existing fractures or planes of weakness. There are several methods used to measure rock strength,
including:

UNIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST: This is the most used
test for measuring rock strength. It involves applying a
compressive stress to a cylindrical rock sample in a
uniaxial loading apparatus. The stress is increased until
the rock sample fractures, and the maximum stress that
the rock can withstand is recorded as the uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) of the rock.
BRAZILIAN TEST: This test involves applying a tensile
stress to cylindrical rock sample that has been cut into
two halves. The halves are placed in a loading
apparatus, and a compressive stress is applied. to the
top and bottom of the sample until it fractures. The
tensile the strength of the rock is calculated from the
maximum load that the sample can withstand.

POINT LOAD TEST: This test involves applying a
concentrated load to a small rock sample, typically a core
or a piece of drill cutting. The load is applied
perpendicular to the bedding plane of the rock, and the
maximum load that the rock can withstand is recorded as
the point load strength index (PLSI) of the rock.
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST: This test is similar to the
uniaxial compression test but involves applying a
confining pressure to the rock sample in addition to
the axial stress. The triaxial test provides more
information on the strength and deformation properties
of rocks under complex stress states.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ROCK STRENGTH, SUCH AS
MINERAL
COMPOSITION, POROSITY,
Several factors can influence AND of
the strength TEMPERATURE
rocks,
including:
MINERAL COMPOSITION: Different minerals TEMPERATURE: The strength of rocks decreases with
have different bonding strengths and structures, increasing temperature, as high temperatures can
which can affect the strength of rocks. For cause mineral grains to soften. or deform. However,
example, rocks that are rich in quartz tend to some
rocks, such as certain types of metamorphic Rocks can
be stronger than those that contain more clay become stronger at high temperatures due to
minerals. recrystallization and grain growth.
POROSITY: The presence of pore spaces or
RATE OF LOADING: The strength of rocks can also be
cracks within a rock can weaken its strength by
influenced by the rate at which they are loaded. Rocks
reducing its internal cohesion. The higher the
tend to be stronger at slower loading rates than at faster
porosity of a rock, the lower its strength.
rates.
CONFINING PRESSURE: The strength of rocks is
FLUID PRESSURE: The presence of fluids, such as
influenced by the confining pressure that they are
water or oil, can affect the strength of rocks by
subjected to. Under high confining pressures,
changing the internal pore pressure. and reducing
rocks tend to be stronger and more resistant to
effective stress. This can lead to the weakening of
deformation.
rocks and increased susceptibility to deformation.
APPLICATIONS OF ROCK MECHANICS
Rock mechanics is a critical field of study in geology, with numerous applications in various
geological and geotechnical activities. Here are some of the significant applications of rock
mechanics in geology:

1.Mining: In mining, rock mechanics is applied to assess the stability of of

underground excavations and to design safe and efficient mining operations. Understanding
the mechanical properties of rocks is essential to evaluate the potential for rock failure, rock
burst, and other hazards that can impact the safety and productivity of mining operations.
2.Tunneling: Rock mechanics is also essential in tunneling to assess the stability of
tunnel excavations, to design support systems, and to mitigate the risk of ground failure.
Understanding the behavior of rock masses and their response to excavation-induced
stress and strain is essential to ensure the safe and efficient construction of tunnels. and
underground infrastructure.
APPLICATIONS OF ROCK MECHANICS
Slope stability: rock mechanics is used to evaluate the stability of natural and artificial slopes in various
geological settings, such as cliffs, hills, and open-pit mines. By understanding the mechanical properties of
rocks and the factors that influence their behavior, engineers can assess the potential for slope instability and
design appropriate slope stabilization measures.
4.Petroleum and geothermal exploration: rock mechanics play a vital role in petroleum and
geothermal exploration by providing information on the mechanical properties of rocks and their behavior
under different loading conditions. This information is critical in the design of drilling and completion
operations and in the evaluation of the potential for reservoir stimulation.
5.Earthquake and seismic hazard assessment: Rock mechanics is used to evaluate the behavior of
rocks during earthquakes and to assess the potential for seismic hazards, such as ground shaking,
liquefaction, and landslides. Understanding the mechanical properties of rocks and their response to
seismic loading is essential in evaluating the seismic hazard and designing earthquake-resistant structures.
HOW ROCK MECHANICS DATA CAN BE USED TO OPTIMIZE
ENGINEERING DESIGNS AND IMPROVE SAFETY.
Rock mechanic data can be used to optimize engineering designs and improve safety in various
geological and geotechnical activities. Here are some ways in which rock mechanics data can be used:

1.Design of support systems: rock mechanics data can be used to design appropriate support systems,
such as bolts, rock anchors, and shot crete, for underground excavations, tunnels, and slopes. By
understanding the mechanical properties of rocks and their behavior under different loading conditions,
engineers can design support systems that provide the necessary strength and stability to the rock mass.
2.Prediction of rock bursts and other hazards: rock mechanics data can be used to predict the potential
for rock bursts and other hazards that can impact the safety of mining operations and
underground excavations. By analyzing the stress and strain distribution in the rock mass, engineers can
identify areas that are prone to failure and take appropriate measures to mitigate the risk.
HOW ROCK MECHANICS DATA CAN BE USED TO OPTIMIZE
ENGINEERING DESIGNS AND IMPROVE SAFETY.

3.Optimization of drilling and completion operations: in petroleum and geothermal exploration,

rock mechanics data can be used to optimize drilling and completion operations by providing information on
the mechanical properties of rocks and their behavior under different loading conditions. By
selecting appropriate drilling and completion techniques, engineers can maximize the production of
hydrocarbons and geothermal energy while minimizing the risk of wellbore instability. and failure.

4.Evaluation of seismic hazards: rock mechanics data can be used to evaluate the potential for seismic
hazards, such as ground shaking, liquefaction, and landslides. By understanding the mechanical properties
of rocks and their response to seismic loading, engineers can design earthquake-resistant structures and
infrastructure and reduce the risk of damage and loss of life.
SAMPLE PHOTOS
 VIDEO:
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