PETROLOGY

&
ROCK CYCL
E Understanding the Basics and Applications
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 I n t r o d u c t i o n to
Petrology
branch of geology concerned with the

compositions, structures, and origins of rocks. It is

the study of the origin, composition, and

structure of rocks.

Petrologists use a variety of techniques to study

rocks, including field observations, microscopy,

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chemical analysis, and experiments.
I M P O R TA N TA N C E

Importance
Petrology is crucial for understanding Earth's history and evolution. Petrologists examine various

rock types—igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic—often focusing on specific time periods or

regions. This study provides insights into geological processes and the planet's development

over time.

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 Branches of
Petrology

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IGNEOUS PETROLOGY

Igneous Petrology
Igneous petrology is the study of

igneous rocks, which are rocksthat have formed

This through
field of the
geology is concerned with the
composition, structure, and origin of igneous rocks, as
solidification of molten magma.
well as the processes that form and alter them.

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C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F I G N E O U S R O C K S

Classification
of Igneous
Rocks

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QAPF DIAGRAM

QAPF
Diagram

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M I N E R A L S IN I G N E O U S R O C K S

M i n e r a l s in I g n e o u s R o c k s

Igneous rocks are made of minerals, which are inorganic substances with

specific chemical compositions and crystal structures. The minerals in an igneous rock

depend on the magma's chemical makeup and the cooling conditions.

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COMMON MINERALS

Common minerals found

in i g n e o u s r o c k s i n c l u d e :

Quarts Feldspar

and A group of minerals made

Composed of silicon
oxygen (SiO2), typically of aluminum, silicon,
found felsic rockslike
in
granite. oxygen, and other elements,

common in both felsic and

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intermediate rocks.
COMMON MINERALS

Minerals
in Igneous
Rocks

PYROXENE OLIVINE AMPHIBOLE MICA

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S E D I M E N TA R Y P E T R O L O G Y

S e d i m e n t a r y Petrology
Igneous petrology is the study of

igneous rocks, which are rocksthat have formed

This through
field of the
geology is concerned with the
composition, structure, and origin of igneous rocks, as
solidification of molten magma.
well as the processes that form and alter them.

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I M P O R TA N TA N C E

Sedimentary Rocks Formation

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C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F S E D I M E N TA R Y R O C K S

Classification Sedimentary rocks are classified into clastic, crystalline, and

of organic textures, with clastic having visible particles,
Sedimentary crystalline having crystals, and organic having visible plant or
Rocks animal remains.

Clastic sedimentary rocks - are composed of fragments of other rocks and minerals, and are classified

based on the size of the particles that make up the rock.

Chemical sedimentary rocks - are formed from the precipitation of minerals from solution.

Organic sedimentary rocks - are formed from the accumulation of plant or animal remains.
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S T R U C T U R E S O F S E D I M E N TA R Y R O C K S

Structures of
Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks may exhibit a variety of structures that can provide information about the environment in which the

rock formed and the processes that have affected the rock. Some common sedimentary rock

structures include:

Stratification: the layering of sedimentary rocks, which may be caused by

changes in the composition or particle size of the sediment

over time, or by changes in the environment of

deposition.
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Bedding: the arrangement of sedimentary layers in a rock, which may be horizontal, inclined, or
M E TA M O R P H I C P E T R O L O G Y

Metamorphic Petrology
It is the study of metamorphic rocks,

which are rocks that haveheat

type into another through the action of
,
pressure,
beenand chemically
transformed active
fromfluids.
one rock
th
This field of geology is concerned with
e
composition, structure, and origin of

metamorphic rocks, as well as the processes that form

and alter
them.
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M E TA M O R P H I C P E T R O L O G Y

Metamorphic
Petrology
It is the
for understanding
the
important
take place within the
processes that
and the history of
Earth’s

interior Earth’s
crust.

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M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S

Metamorphic Metamorphic rocks can be

classified based
on their

Rocks composition and the type of metamorphism that they have

undergone. common types of metamorphic
rocks

Some include:

Regional metamorphic rocks: these rocks have been subjected to regional metamorphism, which

occurs over a large area due to the action of heat and pressure

caused by the

movement of tectonic plates.

Contact metamorphic rocks: these rocks have been subjected to contact metamorphism, which
occurs when a rock is in contact with a body of molten magma.
Hydrothermal metamorphic rocks: these rocks have been subjected to hydrothermal
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metamorphism, which occurs when hot, chemically active fluids flow through the rock and
M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S

It is the process by which a rock is transformed from one rock

type into another through the action of heat, pressure, and

Metamorphism chemicEarth’s
ally active fluids. This process can occur within the
crust or mantle, and can affect both

igneous and sedimentary rocks.

Regional metamorphism: this type of metamorphism occurs over a large area and is caused by the

action of heat and pressure caused by the movement of tectonic plates.

Contact metamorphism: this type of metamorphism occurs when a rock is in contact with a body of

molten magma.

18 Hydrothermal metamorphism: this type of metamorphism occurs when hot, chemically active
M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks can be classified based on several different criteria,

including their composition, texture, and the type of metamorphism that they have undergone.

One common method of classification is based on the composition of the rock. Some common types of

metamorphic rocks based on composition include:

Foliated metamorphic rocks: these rocks have a layered or banded appearance due to the

alignment of minerals along planes of weakness in the rock.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: these rocks do not have a layered or banded appearance and do
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not have a preferred orientation of minerals.
M E TA M O R P H I C M I N E R A L S

Chlorite Epidote Actinolite AMPHIBOLE PLAGIOCLASE

a greenish mineral that a greenish-yellow a greenish mineral that a dark-colored mineral a white or gray
forms under low-grade mineral that forms forms under low- to that forms under high- mineral that forms
metamorphism under low- to medium- medium-grade grade metamorphism under high- grade
grade metamorphism metamorphism metamorphism

Orthoclase: a white or pink mineral that forms under very high-grade

metamorphism and is indicative of the granulite facies.

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 Rock Cycle

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I N T R O D U C T I O N TO R O C K C Y C L E

I n t r o d u c t i o n to R o c k C y c l e

It is a web of processes that outlines how each of

the three major rock like igneous,
metamorphic, types and form and break
down based on the different applications of
sedimentary
heat and pressure over time

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I M P O R TA N C E

Importance
construction
Different rock types and geological processes significantly impact
materials, foundation stability, and resource extraction.

Igneous rocks like granite and basalt are durable and suitable for construction but are hard

to excavate.

Sedimentary rocks such as limestone and sandstone are easier to quarry and shape,

providing essential materials like cement and concrete aggregates, though their strength

varies and can affect foundation stability.

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Metamorphic rocks, including marble and slate, are strong and aesthetically
ROCK CYCLE PROCESS

ROCK CYCLE PROCESS

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TYPES OF ROCKS

Ty p e s o f R o c k s
S e d i m e nta r y R o c k s

Igneous Rocks Metamorphic R o c k s

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IGNEOUS ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS
It is formed through the cooling and solidification of

magma or lava. Igneous rock may form with or

intrusivecryst
without (pluallisation,
tonic) rocks or onthethe
either below surface
surface as as
extrusive (volcanic) rocks.

This magma can be derived from partial melts of

existing rocks in either a planet’s mantle or crust.

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 TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Intrusive igneous rock: These rocks crystallise below the earth’s surface
resulting in large crystals as the cooling takes place slowly. Diorite,
granite, and pegmatite are examples of intrusive igneous rocks.

Extrusive igneous rock: These rocks erupt onto the surface resulting in
small crystals as the cooling takes place quickly. The cooling rate for a
few rocks is so quick that they form an amorphous glass. Basalt, tuff,
and pumice are examples of extrusive igneous rock.

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 EXAMPLE

BASALT DIORITE GRANITE MICA QUARTZ

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S E D I M E N TA R Y R O C K S

S E D I M E N TA R Y R O C K S
Formed by the deposition and subsequent
cementation of that material within bodies of water and

at the surface of the earth. The process that

causes various organic materials and
minerals to settle in a place is termed sedimentation.
The particles that form a sedimentary
rock by accumulating are called sediment.

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 TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastic sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the mechanical
weathering debris. Sandstone, and siltstone are examples of clastic
sedimentary rocks.
Chemical sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the
dissolved materials that precipitate from the solution. Iron ore and
limestones are examples of chemical sedimentary rocks.
Organic sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed from the
accumulation of plant and animal debris. Coal, and some dolomites
are examples of organic sedimentary rocks.

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 EXAMPLE

HALITE LIMESTONE SANDSTONE SILTSTONE

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M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S

M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S
It is make up a large part of the Earth’s crust and are
classified by texture and by chemical and mineral
assemblage. They may be formed simply by being deep
high
beneath the Earth’s surface, subjected to
temperaturesand the great pressure of the rock

layers above it. of

Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation
existing rock types, in a process called

metamorphism, which means “change in form”.

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 TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks are produced by exposure to
heat and pressure which makes them appear layered. Phyllite and gneiss
are examples of foliated metamorphic rocks.

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks: These rocks don’t have layers. Marble

and quartzite are examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks.

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 EXAMPLE

MARBLE SLATE QUARTZITE PHYLLITE

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 H o w h u m a n a c ti v i ti e s l i ke mining , constructi on,
an d polluti on aff ect the r o c k c yc l e ?
Human activities such as mining, construction, and pollution significantly
impact the natural processes of the rock cycle in various ways:

MINING

Disruption of Geological Layers: Mining operations, especially open-pit and

strip mining, remove large volumes of rock and soil, disrupting the
natural stratification and exposing deeper layers to weathering and
erosion.
Acceleration of Erosion: The removal of vegetation and topsoil
accelerates erosion, leading to faster sediment transport and
deposition, which can alter local sedimentary rock formation processes.
Acid Mine Drainage: The exposure of sulfide minerals to air and water
can create sulfuric acid, which leaches heavy metals into waterways,
altering the chemistry of soils and rocks and impacting the formation
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of new minerals.
 H o w h u m a n a c ti v i ti e s l i ke mining , constructi on,
an d polluti on aff ect the r o c k c yc l e ?
Human activities such as mining, construction, and pollution significantly
impact the natural processes of the rock cycle in various ways:

CONSTRUCTION

Quarrying: The extraction of stone and aggregate materials from quarries affects
local landscapes and rock formations, altering the natural rock cycle by removing
significant quantities of rock.
Land Alteration: Large-scale construction projects like dams, tunnels, and buildings
require excavation and modification of rock formations, which can change the
natural processes of rock weathering, erosion, and sedimentation.
Concrete Production: The production of concrete involves the extraction of
limestone and other materials, which not only depletes natural resources but also
changes the landscape and geological features.
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 H o w h u m a n a c ti v i ti e s l i ke mining , constructi on,
an d polluti on aff ect the r o c k c yc l e ?

POLLUTION
Chemical Weathering: Air and water pollution, including acid rain caused by
industrial emissions, can accelerate the chemical weathering of rocks,
particularly limestone and marble. This leads to faster rock breakdown and
altered soil composition.

Contaminated Sediments: Pollutants such as heavy metals and

chemicals
can accumulate in sediments, affecting natural formation
the
sedimentary rocks and potentially creating of harmful
environments. geochemical
Thermal Pollution: Industrial activities that discharge hot water into rivers
and lakes can alter the temperature balance, affecting the rate of
sedimentation and the stability of rock formations in aquatic
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