Research

Design

Its Structure and Content in Research

Proposal
 Introduction
A research design is a proposed operational plan for a
qualitative research process

This plan should be written in a research proposal

One purpose is to convince your potential supervisor(s),

advisory committee, school, etc. that you are capable of
doing the research and that your project is viable

Of course, you need to be flexible and possibly change

the plan as your research progresses
2
 Research design
Research design involves:

specifying your philosophical assumptions of choosing qualitative

research approach,

your research method or tradition,

your research participants and their characteristics

which data collection techniques you will use,

your approach to qualitative data analysis,

your approach to explaining the quality of your data and research

results
3

A research design provides a road map for the entire research process
Research design
A model of qualitative research design
Quality of Data and Research
Results

Data Analysis Approach

Research Participants
&
Data Collection Techniques

Research Method

4
Philosophical Assumptions
 Philosophical Assumptions
Quality of Data and Research
Results
Data Analysis Approach
Participants & Data Collection
Technique
Research Method
Philosophical Assumptions
 Positivist research – are you
testing one or more
hypotheses?
 Interpretive research – are you
exploring a research topic or
theory?
 Critical research – are to
seeking to critique the status
quo or help to emancipate
people in some way?
5
Philosphical
Perspectives
 Introduction
All research is based on some underlying assumptions
about what constitutes ‘valid’ research

Epistemology refers to assumptions about knowledge

and how it can be obtained

All qualitative researchers should understand the

grounds of their knowledge, especially the validity
and scope of the knowledge that they obtain

Philosphical Perspectives
6
 Three categories
All research can be classified into three categories:
positivist, interpretive, and critical

Qualitative/Quantitative research can adopt any one of

these perspectives

For example, case study research can be positivist,

interpretive, or critical

Philosphical Perspectives
7
 Qualitative /Quantitative research

influences/guides

positivist interpretive critical

Underlying philosophical assumptions

Philosphical Perspectives
8
Assumptions of positivist research
Social reality is objective, testable and independent of theoretical
explanation

The researcher should be objective and unbiased

The researcher should be a detached value-free spectator, only an observer

of the objects of study

Theories and hypotheses can be tested independent of an understanding of

meanings and intentions

Lawlike relations can be discovered in organizations, and the purpose of

research is to increase our predictive understanding of phenomena

Scientific research should have formal propositions, quantifiable measures

of variables, and hypothesis testing - cases are of interest only as

9
representative of populations

Positivism is a philosophy states that the only authentic knowledge is

scientific knowledge, and that such knowledge can only come from
Philosphical Perspectives
positive affirmation of theories through strict scientific method.
Assumptions of interpretive research
Social reality is socially constructed
Theories are reconstructions of the facts, and the criterion of a good
theory is an understanding of meaning and intentions rather than
deductive explanation
Meanings in natural science are separate from facts, whereas in
social science meanings are what constitute facts, for data consist of
documents, intentional behaviour (action), social rules, culture, etc.,
and these are inseparable from their meanings for agents
Interpretivism, is a way to gain insights through discovering
meanings by improving our comprehension of the whole.
Qualitative research explores the richness, depth, and complexity of
phenomena.
The hermeneutic circle – the ‘logic’ of interpretation is irreducibly
circular: parts cannot be understood without the whole, data and
concepts cannot be understood without theory and context, etc.
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Philosphical Perspectives
 Assumptions of critical research

Similar to interpretive research except that in addition:

A focus on critique – critique of the prevailing social conditions and

system of constraints

Consider the complex relationships between human interests,

knowledge, power and forms of social control.

Challenge prevailing/existing communities of assumptions

Challenge established social practices

Have an ethically-based stance

Some types of critical theory suggest individual emancipation

and/or improvements in society

Philosphical Perspectives
11
Deductive - begins with an
abstract idea and principle
and works toward the
concrete details to test
these ideas.

Inductive - begins with

concrete details and then
works toward abstract
ideas or general principles
or laws.
Deductive – Theory testing

Inductive – Theory building

 Qualitative Quantitative
The product textual numerical
The epistemology interpretive (empathy positivist (measuring
and understanding) and collecting facts)

The data ‘subjective’ ‘objective’ and

and ‘soft’ ‘hard’

Aim of research discovery oriented verification

Method non-experimental experimental

Process of inquiry concepts derived concepts pre-defined

from understanding from established
the actor’s point of theory
view (inductive) (deductive)
Use of theory theory building theory testing
 Research Method
Quality of Data and Research
Results
 A research method is a strategy
of enquiry
 How are you going to find out
Data Analysis Approach
about the social world?
 Research methods – action
research, case study research,
Participants and Data Collection ethnography, grounded theory
Technique
 Each can use any set of
philosophical assumptions

Research Method

15

Philosophical Assumptions
Research method
 Major Qualitative Research Methods
Case study
Attempts to shed light on a phenomena by studying in-
depth a single case example of the phenomena. The case
can be an individual person, an event, a group, or an
institution.
Ethnography
Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close field
observation of sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the
ethnographer focuses on a community.
Phenomenology
A study that attempts to understand people’s perceptions,
perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation.
In other words, what is it like to experience such and
such?
 Major Qualitative Research Methods
Grounded theory
Theory is developed inductively from a corpus of data
acquired by a participant-observer.
Content Analysis
A detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a
particular body of material for the purpose of identifying
patterns, themes, or biases within a material
Historical
Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data
related to past occurrences in order to test hypotheses
concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events that
may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events.
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Case Study
Definitions and Observations
A particular individual, program, or event is studied in depth for a defined
period of time.
Examples:
Studying the effect of a new drug on a particular patient
Studying the effectiveness of a political campaign for a candidate
Studying the level of improvement in educational achievement on a
student when given a new multi-vitamin formula

Researchers may study two or more cases, often cases that are different in
certain key ways, to make comparisons, build theory, or propose
generalizations. This is referred to as collective case study.

Major weakness of case study design is that we cannot be sure that the
findings are generalizable to other situations, especially if only one case
study was performed.
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Case Study

Method
Gather Case Study Data
Researcher collects extensive data on the individual(s),
program(s), or event(s) on which investigation is focused.
Observations, interviews, documents, past records, audiovisual
materials (photographs, videotapes, audiotapes)
Spend time on site to interact with people who are being
studied

Gather Context Information

Researcher records details about the context surrounding the
case
Physical environment
Historical, economic, and social factors that may affect
situation
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Case Study
Data Analysis Steps
Organize details about case
Case facts are organized in a logical order

Categorize data
Cluster data into meaningful groups

Interpret data
Examine specific documents, occurrences, and other bits of data for a meaning that
may be important to the case

Identify Patterns
Data and their interpretations are scrutinized for underlying themes and other patterns
that characterize the case more broadly than a single piece of information can reveal

Synthesize and Generalize

Construct an overall portrait of the case and draw conclusions that may have
implications beyond the specific case that has been studied
Triangulation of data; many separate pieces of information must all converge to the
same conclusion
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Case Study
Research Report Content
Case study rationale
Why the case study worthy of in-depth investigation and how it will contribute to human beings’
knowledge about the world

Detailed description of the facts related to the case

Describe the object(s), event(s), individual(s) you studied and any other facts uncontested about the
case
Be thorough and objective as much as possible

Discussion of found patterns

Describe any trends, themes, etc. that the data suggest (interpretation)
Provide evidence for every pattern you report to convince readers that such pattern do exist and
portray the collected data
If you find pattern-contradicting data, you should include it to provide unbiased account of the case

Connection to the larger scheme of things

Answer the question; So What?
How does the case study contribute to the knowledge about some aspect of the human experience
You can compare against previously reported case studies to either support or disconfirm an
existing hypothesis or theory
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Ethnography

Method
Gain access to a site appropriate for answering the research question
Ideally, the researcher should be a stranger with no vested interest in the outcome
of the study
The researcher may have to go through a gatekeeper, a person who can provide a
smooth entrance into the site

Establish rapport with people being studied and gain their trust and be open
about reason of study

Gather Information
Intermingle with everyone and get an overall sense of the cultural context (big net
approach)
Identify sources of information, i.e. key informants
Observe, interview, listen, and take extensive field notes
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Ethnography
Data Analysis Steps
Description
Describe events in chronological order
Describe a typical day in the life of the group or of an individual within the group
Focus on a critical event for the group
Develop a story, complete with plot and characters

Analysis
Categorize data according to their meanings.
Identify patterns, regularities, and critical events

Interpretation
General nature of the culture is inferred from the Analysis step outcomes
Existing theoretical frameworks in the field may lend structure and support during the
interpretation process
Interpret with “rigorous subjectivity” since objectivity is hard to attain
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Ethnography
Research Report Content
Rarely written in impersonal style. Often personal and literary narrative designed to engage the
reader’s attention and interest.

Introduction that provides a rational and context for the study

Present the research question and the rationale
Describe why the study was important for you to conduct and for others to read about

Describe the setting and the method

Describe the group you studied and the methods you used to study it
Make it real for readers through considerable details about everything

Analyze the studied culture

Describe the patterns and themes you observed
Present evidence – use participant’s actual words

Provide a conclusion
Relate your findings to the research question and to concepts and theories in your discipline
Avoid making judgments
Convey the voice of the people
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Phenomenological Study

Definitions and Observations

Phenomenology refers to a person’s perception of the meaning of an
event, as opposed to the event as it exists external to the person.

Phenomenological Study is a study that attempts to understand people’s

perceptions, perspectives, and understandings of a particular situation. In
other words, what is it like to experience such and such?

The researcher may have had the experience related to the phenomenon
in question and wants to gain better understanding of the experiences of
others

The researcher could make some generalizations of what something is

like from an insider’s perspective
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Phenomenological Study
Method
Almost exclusively limited to lengthy interviews with a carefully
selected sample of participants
Typical interview’s length: 1-2 hours

Typical sample size: 5-25 individuals

Participants must have had a direct experience with the phenomenon

being studied

Interview’s nature is unstructured. Researcher and participants work

together to arrive at the heart of the matter

Researcher suspends any preconceived notions or personal experiences

that may influence participants
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Phenomenological Study
Data Analysis Steps
Identify statements that relate to the topic
Researcher separates relevant from irrelevant information
Break relevant information into small segments that each reflect a single, specific
thought

Group statements into “meaning units”

Researcher groups the segments into categories that reflect the various aspects
(“meanings”) of the phenomenon as it is experienced

Seek divergent perspectives

Researcher looks and considers the various ways in which different people experience
the phenomenon

Construct a composite
Researcher uses various meanings identified to develop an overall description of the
phenomenon as people typically experience it
The final result is a general description of the phenomenon as seen through the eyes of
the people who have experienced it firsthand.
Focus on common themes despite diversity in the individuals and settings studied
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Phenomenological Study

Research Report Content

No specific structure for the report
Present research problem or question
Describe methods of data collection and analysis
Draw a conclusion about the phenomenon
Discuss practical implications of your findings
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Grounded Theory Study
Definitions and Observations

A type of research that begins with the data and use it to develop a “grounded”
theory

A grounded theory study uses a prescribed set of procedures for analyzing data
that have been collected in the field rather than taken from research literature

Typically focuses on a process related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal
of developing a theory about that process

Helpful when current theories about a phenomenon are either inadequate or

nonexistent

Examples: Interactions between building contractors and future home owners,

management of a difficult pregnancy, experiences with chronic illness,
remarriage following a divorce, and spousal abuse.
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Grounded Theory Study
Method
Gather Data
Researcher collects extensive data on the Gather Data
individual(s), program(s), or event(s) on
which study is focused.
Observations, interviews, documents, past
records, audiovisual materials
(photographs, videotapes, audiotapes)
Data collected must include the
perspectives and voices of the people being
studied

Analyze Data
Analyze Data
Researcher develops categories to classify
the data into proper categories
Revise categories and gather enough data
to “saturate” categories Constant Comparative Method
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Grounded Theory Study
Data Analysis Steps
Open coding: a process of reducing the data to a small set of themes that appear to describe
the phenomenon under investigation
Data is divided into segments and then scrutinized for commonalities that reflect categories or
themes
After data is categorized, it’s further examined for subcategories that characterize each category

Axial coding: a process of making interconnections among categories and subcategories

Focus is to determine the following about each category
Conditions
Context
Strategies that people use to manage it or carry it out
Consequences of such categories

Selective coding: categories and their interrelationships are combined to form a storyline
that describes what happens in the phenomenon being studied

Development of a theory
Develop a theory, in the form of a verbal statement, model, series of hypotheses, to explain the
phenomenon in question and explains how certain conditions lead to certain actions or interactions.
And how those interactions lead to other actions, and so on.
Based entirely on the collected data
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Grounded Theory Study
Research Report Content
What do you think of report style?
Report style is objective and impersonal

Description of the research question

Review of related literature

Do not use literature to provide concepts or theories, rather use it to provide rationale
and context

Describe methods of data collection and analysis

Outline nature of sample and setting
Outline specific methods used in collecting data
Explain the categories and subcategories you identified
Describe how your data collection was driven by your data analysis

Present a theory

Discuss implications
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Content Analysis

Definitions and Observations

Detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a
particular body of material for the purpose of identifying
patterns, themes, or biases.

Typically performed on forms of human communications, i.e.

books, newspapers, films, etc.

Requires a lot of upfront preparation

Not necessarily a stand-alone design. Could be used with other

forms of research to aid in the analysis of the results of a given
research. E.g. cross-sectional study, ex post facto study, and
quasi-experimental study
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Content Analysis
Method
Identify specific body of material to be studied
Small amounts of material is usually studied in its entirety
Large amounts of material are sampled randomly

Define the characteristics or qualities to be examined in precise, concrete terms.

Researcher may identify an example of each characteristic to be more precise.

If material to be analyzed is complex, e.g. books, transcripts of conversation, etc. ,

break down each item into small, manageable segments to be analyzed separately

Scrutinize the material for instances of each characteristic or quality defined

previously.
When judgments are objective (e.g. looking for occurrence of a word in a text ), one rater is
sufficient
When judgments are subjective (e.g. evaluating a behavior for an activity), then multiple
raters (two or three ) are required, and a composite of their judgments is used
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Content Analysis
Data Analysis Steps
Tabulate the frequency of each characteristic found in the studied
material – quantitative approach

Often times, statistical analyses are performed on the frequencies

or percentages obtained to determine whether significant
differences exist relevant to the research question

Use tabulations and statistical analyses to interpret the data as they

reflect on the problem under investigation
 Qualitative Research Methods:
Content Analysis
Research Report Content
Description of the material studied
Describe the overall studied material and any sampling procedures used, if any

Precise definition and description of the investigated characteristics

Define each characteristic enough such that other researchers could replicate the study
Consider using specific examples from your data to illustrate each characteristic

Description of the rating procedure

Describe the rating procedure used to evaluate the material, and how multiple ratings
were combined

Tabulation of each characteristic

Report frequencies or percentages (or both) for each characteristic.
Consider using tables and graphs for illustration

Descriptions of found patterns

Identify themes or trends in the studied material
 Data Collection techniques
Quality of Data and Research
Results  Which data collection
technique(s) will you use?
 Interviews
Data Analysis Approach
 Participant observation and
fieldwork
 Documents
Participants & Data Collection 
Technique
Who are the participants?
Their characteristics?
 Selection methods? Theoretical
sampling? Saturation?
Research Method

37

Philosophical Assumptions
Data collection
 Observation technique
Classification of Observation
Direct vs indirect: Structured vs unstructured
Direct>> observing Structured>>predetermin
behavior as it occurs e what to observe
Indirect >> observing the Unstructured>>monitor
effects of behavior all behavior

Disguised vs nondisguised Human vs Mechanical

Nondisguised>>Direct Human>>observation
Disguised >> Indirect done by human beings
Mechanical>>observatio
n by machine
 Observation

Appropriate Conditions
The event must occur in a short time interval,
avoid lag affect
Must occur in a setting where the researcher can
observe the behavior
Praying, cooking are not suitable things to observe
Necessary under situations of faulty recall
Faulty recall>>remembering things such as how many
times one looked at his wristwatch.
 Observation:
Advantages and Limitations

Advantages
Greater data accuracy than direct questioning, in natural
settings people behave naturally,
Problems of refusal, not at home, false response, non-
cooperation etc. are absent,
No recall error,
In some situations, only way
Number of customers visiting a store
Studying children’s behavior

Limitations
Time consuming, -- too many things to observe,
may not be representative,
difficulty in determining root cause of the behavior.
 Focus Group
An interview conducted by a trained moderator in a
non-structured and natural manner with a small
group of respondents.

Group size 8-12

Group composition Homogenous, respondents prescreened
Physical setting Relaxed, informal setting
Time duration 1 - 3 hours
Recording Use of audio and video cassettes
Moderator Observational, interpersonal, good
communication skills needed.
 Focus Groups

Objectives:
Generate new product or service ideas
Understand consumer vocabulary
Useful for ad campaigns
Reveal consumer needs, motives, perceptions and
attitudes,
Generating future research objectives
Facilitate understanding of the quantitative studies
 Focus Group Procedure
Determine the objectives of the Research and define the
problem
Specify the objective of qualitative research
State the objectives/questions to be answered by the focus
group
Write a screening questionnaire
Develop a moderator’s outline
Conduct the focus group interview
Review tapes and analyze data
Summarize the findings and plan follow-up research
 The Focus Group Moderator

The person who conducts the focus group

session.
Success of focus groups depend on him/her,
He/she must strive for generating a stimulating
natural discussion without losing sight of the focus,
Must take initiative, but should not dominate the
discussion unduly,
Should have feeling of urgency,
Should participate in the research from the
beginning,
Must add value beyond just conducting the session.
 Traits of a Good Focus Group Moderator

A Good Focus Group Moderator…

1. must have experienced in conducting focus group research;
2. should participate in conceptualizing the focus group research design, rather
than simply executing the groups exactly as asked and take personal and take
responsibility for the recruitment, screening, and selecting of participants.
3. must engage in advance preparation to improve overall knowledge of the area
being discussed and prepare a detailed guide to moderate the focus group..
4. must demonstrate the enthusiasm and exhibit the energy necessary to keep the
group interested yet maintain control of the group without leading or influencing
the participants;
5. should be open to modern techniques (e.g., attitude scaling, conceptual mapping,
visual stimulation, or role-playing) which can be used to delve deeper into the
minds of participants;
6. must share in the feeling of urgency to complete the focus group while desiring
to achieve an excellent total research project; and
7. must provide some “added value” to the project beyond just conducting the
session.
 Focus Group:
Advantages and Disadvantages

Major Advantages:
Synergism, Snowballing, Stimulation, Security,
Spontaneity, Speed and Cost savings.

Major Disadvantages:
Lack of representativeness, Misuse, Misjudge,
Moderation problem, and Difficulty of analysis

A very promising technique.

 Seven advantages of Focus Group

1. Synergism. When a group of people with similar interests

discuss an issue together, they are likely to produce a richer
insight, wider range of information, and innovative ideas than
will individual responses obtained privately.
2. Snowballing. In a group discussion, one person’s comment often
triggers a chain reaction from the other participants and
generates more views.
3. Stimulation. Once the focus group discussion is underway,
general level of excitement over the topic increases, and a large
number of respondents want to express their ideas and expose
their feelings.
 Seven advantages of Focus Group
4. Security. Because of homogeneity of composition, focus group
participants have similar feelings. This enables them to feel
comfortable and uninhibited to express their ideas/feelings.
5. Spontaneity. In focus groups participants are not required to
answer specific questions. Their responses can be spontaneous
and unconventional reflecting an accurate idea of their views
6. Speed. Because people discuss issues simultaneously, data
collection and analysis in focus group proceed relatively quickly.
7. Inexpensive. Considering the richness of output, it is a
relatively inexpensive method of data collection.
 Five Disadvantages of Focus Group
1. Lack of representativeness. Focus groups are not representative of the
general population. Hence, results of focus group discussions are not
projectable and should not be the only basis for decision making.
2. Misjudgement. Focus groups are generally susceptible to client and
researcher biases. As such, compared to the results of other data
collection techniques, focus group results could be easily misjudged.
3. Misuse. Focus groups can be misused and abused by considering the
results as conclusive rather than exploratory.
4. Moderation. Skills of the moderator is a major determinant of focus
group success and the quality of their results. But moderators with
desirable skills are rare.
5. Difficult to analyze. The unstructured nature of the responses in focus
group discussions makes coding, analysis, and interpretation difficult.
 Other Qualitative Techniques

In-Depth Interview: An unstructured interview that seeks

opinions of respondents on a one-to-one basis. Useful for
sensitive issues, politics etc.

Protocol Analysis: Involves placing a person in a decision

making situation and asking him/her to state everything he/she
considers in making a decision. Useful in 1. Purchasing
involving a long time frame (car, house) and 2. Where the
decision process is too short (greeting card).

Projective technique: Involve situations in which participants

are placed in simulated activities hoping that they will divulge
information about themselves that are unlikely to be revealed
under direct questing.
 Projective Techniques
These are indirect interviewing methods which enable
sampled respondents to project their views, beliefs and
feelings onto a third-party or into some task situation.

The researcher sets up a situation for the respondents

asking them to express their own views, or to complete/
interpret some ambiguous stimulus presented to them.

Various types. More common ones are:

Free Word Association
Sentence Completion
Unfinished scenario/story completion
Cartoon completion test
 FREE WORD ASSOCIATION

In this technique, a list of carefully selected stimulus words or

phrases related to the topic of research are read out, one at a time,
to a respondent. The respondent is asked to respond with the first
word or phrase that comes to his/her mind. The list of words
should contain a mixture of test words and neutral words.

In the example shown here, the researchers Stimulus Word Response

seems to be interested in studying high-tech Postman __________
banking (words with *). Bank Teller* __________
Networking __________
However, analyzing and interpreting test
results are rather difficult. Automatic teller machine*
Persian Carpet __________
Driver __________
Bank by Phone* __________
Transitlink _________
 SENTENCE COMPLETION
This technique is an extension of the free-word association test. In this technique,
the respondent is presented with some sentences containing incomplete stimuli
and is asked to complete them. Like the free-word association method,
interpreting and analysing data obtained from this technique is also difficult.

Automatic teller machine users are

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Automatic teller machines may be convenient, but they

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
My major concern about automatic teller machines is
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
 UNFINISHED SCENARIO COMPLETION
This technique is similar to the sentence completion test. However, in this
technique, the respondent is presented with a specific scenario containing
incomplete stimuli [see example below] and is asked to complete the scenario.
Interpreting and analysing data obtained from this technique is also difficult.

Since Mr. Albert Lee had received a large commission by check just
before leaving home for a holiday trip, he wanted to deposit it in an
automatic teller machine, because ___________, but his friend Mr.
Wong told him that he should _____________, because
_____________.
 CARTOON COMPLETION TEST
In the cartoon technique, the respondent is
shown a comic-strip like cartoon with two
characters in a conversation. While the Deposit
this
speech of one character is shown in his/her cheque
balloon,the other balloon is empty. nearest
ATM in
The respondent is asked to assume the role the
of the other person and fill the empty
baloon with a speech.
 Suitability in Asia-Pacific Region

Theoretically, qualitative research techniques should be suitable

in the Asia-Pacific countries. However, in reality conducting
qualitative research in Asia does not seem to be easy.

In most Asian countries techniques such as focus group

research constitutes about 10% of all research works carried
out by companies mainly due to cultural reasons.
People feel more confident with numbers than with mere opinions.
In some Asian societies, people hesitate to express opinion on
sensitive issues.
Groups in Singapore are less willingly to talk than those in Hong
Kong.
While expressing views, Hong Kongers are more impatient, while
Thais and Filipinos have an in-built “courtesy bias”.
 Data Analysis approach
Quality of Data and Research
Results
 Many ways to analyse
qualitative data

Data Analysis Approach

Participants & Data Collection
Technique
 Coding
 Content analysis
 Discourse analysis
 Hermeneutics
 Narrative analysis, etc.

Research Method

57
Philosophical Assumptions
Data analysis
 Data Analysis is ..

an ongoing and iterative (nonlinear) process in qualitative

research.

it is interim analysis (i.e., the cyclical process of

collecting and analyzing data during a single research
study). Interim analysis continues until the process or
topic the researcher is interested in is understood (or until

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you run out of resources!).

de
Coding and Developing Category Systems

This is the next major stage of qualitative data

analysis. It is here that you carefully read your
transcribed data, line by line, and divide the data into
meaningful analytical units (i.e., segmenting the data).

When you locate meaningful segments, you code

them.

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de
 Coding
Coding is defined as marking the segments of data with
symbols, descriptive words, or category names.

Again, whenever you find a meaningful segment of text

in a transcript, you assign a code or category name to
signify that particular segment. You continue this process
until you have segmented all of your data and have

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completed the initial coding.

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 Types of Coding
You may decide to use a set of already existing codes
with your data. These are called a priori codes.
A priori codes are codes that are developed before
examining the current data.
Many qualitative researchers like to develop the codes
as they code the data. These codes are called inductive
code
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Inductive codes are codes that are developed by the

de
researcher by directly examining the data .
 A common approach for analyzing
qualitative data is called content analysis.
It involves 5 steps:

1. Get to know your data

2. Focus the analysis
3. Categorize the information
Identify themes or pattern
Organize them into coherent categories

4. Identify patterns and connections within

and between categories
5. Interpretation – bring it all together
Step 1. Get to know your data.
Good qualitative data analysis depends upon understanding your
data. Spend time getting to “know” your data.

Read and re-read the text

Listen to tape recordings if you have them;

transcribe data

Check the quality of the data. Is it complete and

understandable. It it likely to add meaning and
value? Was it collected in an unbiased way?
 Step 2. Focus the analysis

Review the purpose of the evaluation and what you

wanted to find out.

Based on your ‘getting to know your data’, think

about a few questions that you want your analysis to
answer and write them down.

You might focus your analysis by question, topic,

time period, event, individual or group.
 Step 3. Categorize information

Some people call this process ‘coding’ the data.

It involves reading the data and giving labels or codes to

the themes and ideas that you find.

You may have themes or ideas you search for (pre-set

categories) and/or create categories (emergent
categories) as you work with the data.
Example of categorizing
information using hand
coding

Each response is read and

given a code to represent a
different concept (category):
Trg = training
T = time
R = resources
P = program
Fdbk = feedback
M= mentor
U = uncertain

Then, the data can be sorted

and organized by category to
identify patterns and bring
meaning to the responses.
If you’ve entered your data into a word processing file, you might highlight quotes and
type category labels in the margins. It is a good idea to leave a wide margin when you
create the file so you have space to type in the margins.
Or, you might use Excel to organize and categorize your data
Step 4. Identify patterns within and
between categories

Once you have identified the categories, you might:

Sort and assemble all data by theme
Sort and assemble data into larger categories
Count the number of times certain themes arise to
show relative importance (not suitable for statistical
analysis)
Show relationships among categories
 Working with others (key
stakeholders, other program
staff, participants) in the coding and
interpretation process is helpful. For example,
several people might review the data independently
to identify categories. Then, you can compare
categories and resolve any discrepancies.

How else might you involve others in your

qualitative data analysis?
 Step 5. Interpretation

Now, stand back and think about what you’ve

learned. What do these categories and patterns
mean? What is really important
What did you learn?
Quality of Data and Research Results
Quality of Data and Research
Results

 Credibility
 Trustwothiness
Data Analysis Approach

Data Collection Technique

Research Method

72

Philosophical Assumptions Research

quality
 What Makes Good Qualitative
Research: Data & Results?
Purposefulness
Research question drives the methods used to collect and analyze the data

Explicitness of assumptions and biases

Researcher identifies and communicates any assumptions, beliefs, biases, and values that may influence data collection and
interpretation

Rigor
Researcher uses rigorous, precise, and thorough methods to collect, record, and analyze data and takes steps to remain as objective as
possible

Open Mindedness
Researches shows willingness to modify hypothesis and interpretations when newly acquired data conflict with previously collected
data

Completeness
Researcher describes all aspects of researched materials

Coherence
Data yield consistent findings and multiple resources converge onto consistent conclusions (triangulation)

Persuasiveness
Researcher presents logical evidence and weight of evidence points strongly towards conclusions

Consensus
Other individuals and participants agree with the researcher’s interpretations and explanations

Usefulness
Project yields conclusions that promote better understanding of a phenomenon, enable more accurate predictions about future events
The model in perspective
Quality of Data and Research Results
(Credibility, trustworthiness...)
Data Analysis Approach
(Hermeneutics, semiotics, narrative
analysis .&..)Data
Participants
Collection Technique
(Participants’ characteristics,
interviews, participant
Research documents)
observation, Method
(action research, case
study, ethnography,
Philosophical
grounded theory ...)
Assumptions
(positivist,
interpretive,
critical)

74

Research model
Writing a research proposal
Item
1. A title
2. An abstract
3. An introduction
4. A literature review
5. A topic
6. A theoretical framework
7. A research design
8. A timeline to completion
9. A budget plan 75
10. A list of references
Research design
 Congratulation!!
You are ready to go to the
field!!!