Heat and mass transfer

FITSUM FEKADU (L.Col)

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 CHAPTER 1

Heat transfer:
introduction

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 Objectives of the Chapter
Define the subject heat transfer
Discuss the Relevance of heat transfer
Explain about the Modes of heat transfer
Explain the
• Fourier’s law of conduction
• Newton’s law of cooling (conv.)
• Plank’s law of radiation
• Stefan-Boltzmann’s law of radiation
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 7.1 Introduction
• Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
 A thermodynamics analysis is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state
to another.
 Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of heat
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature before the
equilibrium state.
• The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer,
just as the voltage difference is the driving force for electric current
flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow.
• Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
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7.2 Relevance of Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer is indeed a relevant subject. We will devote much
time to acquire an understanding of heat transfer effects and to
develop the skills needed to predict heat transfer rates. What is the
value of this knowledge, and to what kinds of problems may it be
applied?
• Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering systems and
other aspects of life, and one does not need to go very far to see some
application areas of heat transfer.
• Many ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in
part, by using the principles of heat transfer. Some examples include
the heating or air-conditioning system, the refrigerator, water heater,
the iron and even the computer, the TV and so on.
• Of course, energy-efficient homes are designed on the basis of
minimizing the heat loss in winter and heat gain in summer.

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• Heat transfer plays a major role in the design of many other devices,
such as car radiators, solar collectors, various components of power
plants, and even spacecraft.
• The thickness of insulation in the walls and roof of the houses, on hot
water or steam pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the
basis of heat transfer analysis with economic consideration.
• On a smaller scale, there are many heat transfer problems related to
the development of solar energy conversion systems for space heating
as well as for electric power production.
• Heat transfer problems arise in the design of conventional space and
water heating systems, in the design of, in the cooling of electronic
equipment, in the design of refrigeration and air-conditioning systems,
and in many manufacturing processes.

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Application Areas of Heat Transfer

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7.3 Modes of heat transfer
• Conduction: the transfer of energy from the more energetic to the
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between
the particles.
• Convection: when heat is carried away by moving fluid. The flow
can either be caused by external influences, forced convection; or by
buoyancy forces, natural convection. Convective heat transfer is
tightly coupled to the fluid flow solution.
• Radiation: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves between
surfaces with different temperatures, separated by a medium that is at
least partially transparent to the (infrared) radiation. Radiation is
especially important at high temperatures, e.g. during combustion
processes, but can also have a measurable effect at room
temperatures.

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7.4 Fourier’s law of conduction
• The law states that the heat flux is proportional to the temperature
gradient:

• where k(x,y,z,T) is the thermal conductivity.

• In most practical situations conduction, convection, and radiation
appear in combination.
• Also for convection, the heat transfer coefficient is important,
because a flow can only carry heat away from a wall when that wall is
conducting.

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 L

Heat transfer through a wall

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7.5 Newton’s law of cooling
• Newton described the cooling of objects with an arbitrary shape in a
pragmatic way. He postulated that the heat transfer Q is proportional
to the surface area A of the object and a temperature difference T.
• The proportionality constant is the heat transfer coefficient h(W/m2-
K). This empirical constant lumps together all the information about
the heat transfer process that we don’t know or don’t understand.

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7.6 Plank’s law of radiation
• Classical physics (statistical thermodynamics) cannot explain the
experimentally observed spectra of radiation.
• Classical physics assumed that radiation is emitted continuously by
the matter with smooth continuous spectrum of all possible energy
levels.
• In 1900, Max Planck postulated that the electromagnetic energy is
emitted not continuously (like by vibrating oscillators), but by
discrete portions or quants. Quantum mechanics was born! Planck’s
Law states that

• where h = 6.626x10-34 J.s and k = 1.381x1023 J/K are the universal

Planck and Boltzmann constants, respectively, co =2.998x108 m/s is
the speed of light in vacuum, and I is Radiation intensity.
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 7.7 Stefan–Boltzmann law as

• The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface

at an absolute temperature Ts (in K or R) is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as

is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

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 pt e r
C h a
of
En d

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