F O U N D A T I O N O F I N D I V I D U A L B E H A VI O R

AND LEARNING IN AN ORGANIZATION

BY
SHEWAYIRGA ASSALF ( ASS. PRO.)

2021 G.C
 DEFINITION OF PERCEPTION
 Perception is defined as “a process by which individuals organize
and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to
their environment (Robbins)”.
 Kolsds defines “perception as the selection and organization of
material which stems from the outside environment at one time or
the other to provide the meaningful entity we experience”.
Perception clarifies the following:
1. People’s actions, emotions, thoughts and feelings are triggered by
their perceptions of their surroundings.
2. Perceptions are the intellectual process by which a person access the
information for the environment, organize it and obtain the
meaning from it.
3. Perception is the phase of operation that takes place after the
information being received by one that is well high
indistinguishable from it.
4. Perception is the basic cognitive or psychological process. The
manner in which a person perceives the environment affects his
behavior.
 Factors Influencing Perception
 Following three factors influence the perception
 The perceiver,
 The perceived or target, and
 The setting/ situation.
1. Perceiver:
• When an individual looks at the object and attempts to interpret the
same, what he or she sees it is largely influenced by the personal
characteristics.
 Perception is a matter of attitude that can be positive or negative.
 Motive is nothing but unsatisfied needs. This exerts considerable
influence on perception.
 Interest is persons liking for a particular thing in an individual.
 Past experience also plays an important role in perception. Just as
interest narrows down one’s perception so does past experience.
 Expectations can distort one’s perception in what one sees and what
one expects to see.
 Factors Influencing Perception….
2. The Perceived or Target:
 Objects, events that are similar to each other tend to group
together and have a tendency of perceiving them as common
group for example Blacks, Whites or Indians etc irrespective
of their different characteristics.
 Physical and time proximity also leads us to perceiving a
situation in a different form than actual reality.
3. The Situation
 Change in situation leads to incorrect perception about a
person.
 Time is one factor, which influences the perception.
 Time is related to work setting and social setting.
 A person decked up for party may not be noticeable but the
same dress in office would be noticed distinctly, though the
person has not changed
 Factors Influencing Perception….
3. The Situation…..
 You would have very frequently heard people say that
their manager is different during working hours and 180
degree opposite while in social setting.
 In fact person is the same but the perceiver perceives the
manager as per business like setup while on work, while
the person is observed on a private or a personal platform
when meeting him in the club or at home.
 An object can be identified by its size, shade, shape,
sound it makes and background.
 Attribution Theory of Perception
 In day-to-day life, we come across people with whom we
interact.
 Motives, intentions, belief and attitude of people have an
impact as to how they behave.
 It has been seen that our perception about the people is greatly
influenced by the assumption we make about a person and not
by reality.
 There are two factors, which has an impact on human behavior.
 First is internally caused behavior – refers to internal factors
on which individual has a full control,
 Secondly the externally caused behavior refers to the behavior
which has been caused due to external factors and that the
individual has no control over it.
 Attribution theory suggest that when we evaluate human
behavior, it is either internally caused or it is caused due to
external factors as explained above.
 Common Attribution Errors
1. Prejudice and Discrimination
2. Perceptual Distortions
 Stereotyping
 The halo effect
 Selective Perception

1. Prejudice and Discrimination

 Prejudice refers to a person’s predetermined negative attitudes
towards people based on some group identity.
 When an individual acts on his negative prejudicial attitudes,
discrimination occurs.
 Discrimination is the result of prejudicial attitudes
 Prejudices are generally deeply ingrained, learned beliefs and
attitudes passed on by family, regional, and peer cultures.
 Negative prejudicial attitudes are not based on objective facts
or reality but on biased belief systems.
 Common Attribution Errors …..
2. Perceptual Distortions
Stereotyping is a tendency to make generalizations,
positive and/or negative about a group or category of
people.
 Stereotyping involves applying, these generalizations to
an individual.
The Halo effect is another perceptual distortion that
occurs when a dominant feature of a person being observed
overwhelms the observer’s evaluation of the person being
observed, resulting in bias. The observer’s overall
impression of the person for situation is skewed by a single
characteristic of the person or situation.
 First impressions can involve the halo effect
 Common Attribution Errors …..
 Selective Perception is a common distortion by which
people unconsciously focus on aspects of individuals,
events, or situations that are consistent with, or reinforce,
their pre-existing attitudes, moods, values, needs, or
schemata even as they screen out other, relevant
information as inconsistent with the pre-held beliefs.
• Leniency or harshness see everything as good –see
see everything as bad –
• “Recency of events” error Forget more about past
behavior than current behaviour. Gives greater
weight to recent occurrences than earlier
• Contrast effects;- evaluated immediately after the
performance of an outstanding employee
 DEFINITION OF ATTITUDE….
 According to G.W. Allport, “Attitude is a mental and
neutral state of readiness organized through experience,
exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s
response to all objects and situations with which it is
related.”
 Kerch and Crutchfield defined “attitude as an enduring
organization of motivational, emotional, perceptual and
cognitive processes with respect to some aspect of the
individual’s world”
 According to Katz and Scotland, “Attitude is a tendency or
predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object
in a certain way”. In effect attitude is used in a generic sense,
as to what people perceive, feel and express their views about
a situation, object or other people. Attitude cannot be seen,
but the behavior can be seen as an expression of attitude.
 Characteristics of Attitude
Rao and Narayana identified the following characteristics of attitudes.
 Valence. It refers to the magnitude of degree of favorableness or un
favorableness toward the event. While measuring attitudes we are
basically concerned with the valence. If a person is extremely favorable or
unfavorable toward an attitude object, then his attitude will have a high
valence.
 Multiplicity. It refers to the number or elements constituting attitude.
For example, an employee may loyal to the organization, but another may
loyal hardworking, respectful, and dependent also.
 Relation to Needs. Attitudes can also vary in relation to the needs they
serve. Attitude of an individual toward the pictures may serve only
entertainment needs. On the other hand, attitudes of an individual toward
task may serve strong needs for security, achievement, recognition, and
satisfaction.
 Centrality. This refers to the importance of the attitude object to
the individual. Centrality indicates the importance of the object.
The attitude which has high centrality for an individual will less
accessible to change
 Components of Attitude
A person’s attitude comprises of three components;
namely, affective, cognitive and overt.
The “affective” or “feeling” component refers to the
emotions associated with an attitude object.
It basically consists of the “feeling” a person has
toward an attitude object.
An attitude has three separate but related parts: -
1. Cognitive component: Cognitive component of
attitude is related to value statement.
 It consists of belief, ideas, values and other information
that an individual may possess or has faith in.
 Quality of working hard is a value statement or faith that
a manager may have.
 Components of Attitude ….
Affective component: Affective component of attitude is related to
2.

person’s feelings about another person, which may be positive,

negative or neutral.
 I do not like Maya because she is not hard working, or I like Mina
because she is hard working.
 It is an expression of feelings about a person, object or a situation.
3. Behavioral component: Behavioral component of attitude is
related to impact of various situations or objects that lead to
individual’s behavior based on cognitive and affective components.
 I do not like Maya because she is not hard working is an affective
component, I therefore would like to disassociate myself with her, is
a behavioral component and therefore I would avoid Maya.
 Development of favorable attitude and good relationship with Mina
is but natural.
 Individual’s favorable behavior is an outcome of the fact that Mina is
hard working.
 Cognitive and affective components are bases for such behavior.
 Types of Attitude
 Job satisfaction
 Job involvement
 Organizational commitment
1. Job satisfaction
 Job satisfaction is related to general attitude towards the
job.
 A person having a high level of satisfaction will generally
hold a positive attitude while dissatisfied people will
generally display negative attitude towards life.
 When we talk about attitude, we generally speak about job
satisfaction because they are inter-related in
organizational behavior.
 Types of Attitude…..
2. Job involvement:
 Job involvement refers to the degree to which a person
identifies himself (psychologically) with his job, actively
participates and considers his perceived performance
level important to self-worth. (Robbins).
 High level of involvement indicates that the individual
cares for his job that has an impact on high productivity.
 Higher the job satisfaction, lower will be absenteeism and
employee turnover
 Types of Attitude…..
3. Organizational commitment:
 Organizational commitment refers to degree to which an
employee identifies himself with the organizational goals
and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
 He wants to “belong” to the organization and take an
active part in the its functioning. Absenting or resigning
from the job versus job satisfaction is a predictor of
organizational commitment.
 The concept has been very popular in the recent times.
 Organizational commitment depends upon job
enrichment factor and degree to which the workers enjoy
autonomy and freedom of action while performing.
 DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY
 Personality is a very complex and multidimensional
construct of a human being.
 No common definition of personality has so far been arrived
at.
 Every individual defines personality in different
way which includes trait factors and physical appearance.
 “Personality is a dynamic organization within an individual
of those psychological systems that determines his unique
adjustment with the environment.
 It is a sum total of ways in which an individual reacts
and interacts with others.”
 In the words of Kolasa, “personality is a broad, amorphous
designation relating to fundamental approaches of
persons to others and themselves.
 PERSONALITY….
 To most psychologists and students of behavior, this term
refers to the study of the characteristics traits of an
individual, relationships between these traits, and the way
in which a person adjust to other people and situations.”
 According to Gluck, “Personality is a pattern of stable
states and characteristics of a person that influences his or
her behaviour toward goal achievement.
 Each person has unique ways of protecting these states.”
 Maddi (1980) defines personality thus: Personality is a
stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine
those commonalities and differences in the psychological
behavior (thoughts, feelings, and actions) of people that
have continuity in time and that may not be easily
understood as the sole result of the social and biological
pressures of the moment
 PERSONALITY….
 The above definitions indicate the commonality of
characteristics and human tendencies amongst people
who display consistency in their behavior over time.
 Maddi’s definition suggests that people do change due
to biological and social pressures.
 Thus by understanding certain dimensions of personality
one can predict human behavior to a great extent.
Determinants to Personality
 Several factors influence the shaping of our personality.
Chief among these are heredity, culture, family
background, our experiences through life, and the people
we interact with.
 PERSONALITY….
1. Heredity. There are some genetic factors, which play a part in
determining certain aspects of what we tend to become.
 Whether we are tall or short, experience good health or ill health,
are quickly irritable or patient, are all characteristics which can,
in many cases, be traced to heredity.
2. Culture. The cultural values we are surrounded by significantly
tend to shape our personal values and predisposition.
 Thus people born in different cultures have different
personalities, which significantly influence their behaviors.
 People in the West, for instance, generally tend to be more
assertive than people in oriental cultures.
3. Family Background. His socio-economic status of the
family, the number of children in the family and birth order,
and the background and education of the parents and
extended members of the family such as uncles and aunts,
influence the shaping of personality to a considerable
extent.
 Determinants to Personality….

3. Situation Individual has to interact with number of

problems in a given situation, which does not remain constant.
 It is subject to change and hence fluid in nature.
 There is therefore a need to recognize the person-situation
interaction.
 It can be social learning activity of personality.
 Thus personality is situational, the uniqueness of each
situation and any on how a person in an organization would
display his reactions in a particular situation.
4. Environment Every individual is born and brought up in a
particular environment.
 Environment leaves an imprint on the personality of an
individual. It is commonly seen that a doctor’s son preferring
his father’s profession and a child of a soldier entering into
defense Services.
 Organization—Based Personality Attributes
 Major personality attributes which affects organizational
behavior is locus of control that is the degree to which
people believe that they are masters of their own fate.
 People have both internal locus of control and external locus
of control, only the degree varies.
A. Internal Locus of Control.
 Persons having internal locus of control believe that they
can manipulate events to their advantage and therefore
they are capable of deciding their fate .
 For example, a manager having dominant internal locus of
control would be able to effectively control resources,
decide events, which benefits him.
 Organization—Based Personality Attributes….
2. External Locus of Control.
 Person having dominant external locus of control believe
that what happen to them is controlled by outside forces
such as luck or chance.
 These types of people lack initiative, decision-making and
do not even take calculated risk.
 They wait and see events take place and things happen.
Type - A and Type - B Characteristics.
 In contract to the locus of control characteristic, which
addresses why a person is behaving in a certain manner, the
well-known type A/B classification describes how a
person behaves in his life and work.
 Type - A individuals are characterized as compulsive and
obsessive, impatient and irritable, high achievers,
perfectionists, very competitive, quick movers, and very
time conscious
 Organization—Based Personality Attributes….
 Type - B individuals, on the other hand, are more
methodical in getting tasks accomplished, more relaxed
and laid back, and more patients with others.
 Type A personalities, when carried to extremes, can lead
to over controlling and conflict-oriented behavior.
 DEFINITION OF LEARNING
 According to Norman Munn, “Learning can be defined as the
process of being modified more or less permanently by what
happens in the world around us, by what we do or what we
observe”.
 According to Hilgard and Bower, “Learning is the process
by which an activity originates or is changed through reacting
to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of
the change activity cannot be explained on the basis of native
response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the
organism.”
 According to Bernard, Bass and James Vaughn,
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour which
occurs as a result of experience”.
 According to Fred Luthens; “Learning can be defined as
relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a
result of experience or reinforced practice”.
 Types of learning
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
 COGNITIVE THEORY
 SOCIAL LEARNING
1. Classical Conditioning – behaviorist theory
 Van Pavlov a psychologist who won Nobel Prize introduced
classical conditioning theory.
 The experiment envisaged dog as a subject.
 Pavlov carried out this experiment in three sequential stages.
In stage one; he presented meat (unconditional stimulus) to
the dog.
 He noticed a great deal of salivation (unconditional response).
 In stage two, he only rang up the bell (neutral stimulus), the
dog had no salivation
 Classical Conditioning…..
 In stage three, Pavlov was to accompany the offering of
meat to the dog along with ringing up of bell.
 After doing this several times, Pavlov rang up only bell
(without offering of meat to the dog).
 This time the dog salivated to the ringing up of bell alone.
Pavlov concluded that the dog has become classically
conditioned to salivate (response) to the sound of the bell
(stimulus).
 Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we
react in a specific way.
 It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event
 2. Operant Conditioning
 Operant conditioning deals with Response - Stimulus (R-S)
connection. T
 The concept was originated by B.F. Skinner.
 He felt that more complex behavior couldn’t be explained by
Classical Conditioning concept. He states that most human
behavior operates based on the environment.
 It is concerned primarily with learning as a consequence of
behavior (R-S).
 In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a
consequence of many stimulus situations.
 Stimulus typically serves as a cue for a particular response. In
his concept a “response” is first evaluated out of many stimuli,
which is environmental in nature. Behavior is a function of
consequences.
 It is voluntary in nature.
 Re-enforcement increases the probability of occurrence.
 2. Operant Conditioning….

 Behavior is learned and is not a matter of reflects.

 If we create learning consequences, the probability of specific
forms of behavior increases.
 For example an individual will take a long trek (Response) to
library because he knows he would be able to get a desired
book (Stimulus), (R-S connections).
 Individual would work hard(R) because he knows that he
would be able to get praise, or even promotion (S).
 Operant Conditioning has greater impact on
learning as compared to Classical Conditioning.
 3. Cognitive Theory – Cognitive Approach

 Edward Tolman was recognized as pioneer of Cognitive Theory.

 The theory consists of relationship between environmental
(cognitive) cues and expectations.
 He used white rat in his psychological experiment of Cognitive
theory.
 He found that the rat could run through critical path with
particular intention of getting food (goal/objective).
 In the experiment, Tolman established certain choice points where
expectations were established.
 The rat learned cognitive cues at various choice points, which
would raise its expectation to move forward to the objective (food).
 Thus the rat turned to acquire food, based on relationship of Cues
and Reward or expectations.
 This theory was later applied on human resources where incentives
were related to higher performance
 4. Social Learning – behavioral approach

 Social learning approach is a behavioral approach.

 The approach basically deals with learning process based on
direct observation and the experience.
 It is achieved while interacting with individuals.
 In social learning people observe, alter and even construct a
particular environment to fit in the social behavioral pattern.
 Individuals learn a great deal from watching attractive
models and they copy their behaviour and display the same.
 Strategies of reinforcement, Punishment and Extinction

 Management of human resource plays a dominant role in

the growth of an organization.
 Various material inputs in the organization can be put to its
optimum utilization if the employees display positive
attitude towards organizational systems, processes,
activities and have an appropriate interpersonal behavior.
 This is possible if a manager is able to identify human
requirements (needs) try and satisfy them in an
unambiguous manner.
 This can be achieved by applying re-enforcement to
individuals in the course of their performance.
 If a cleaner keeps the workshop floor neat and clean at all
the times, he should be awarded so that he continues to
display the same behavior.
 1. Continuous Schedule
 Continuous re-enforcement re-enforces the desired
behavior of an individual in the organization.
 When a worker is required to do a particular assignment
and if he does it on time he should be rewarded for the
same.
 Because , he would continue to display the same behavior
every time with the hope of reward.
 It has been seen that when the re-enforcement (reward) is
withdrawn the individual is unlikely to do the job on time.
 It is not possible for the manager to keep a tag of each and
every individual and the activities they perform in the
organization.
 It is therefore important to lay down the policy in this
respect so that employees achieve higher productivity by
displaying desired (standard) behavior
 2. Partial Re-enforcement Schedule

 In partial re-enforcement every positive act of individual

is not re-enforced (rewarded).
 In this schedule individual’s behavior is re-enforced after
a long gap and his accumulated behavior is rewarded.
 It has been observed that partial re-enforcement has a
fair chance of individual behaving in a positive and
desired manner because he feels that sooner or later his
work would be recognized.
 Partial re-enforcement has a wide application in the
organizations.
 Partial re-enforcement can be classified into four
categories: -
 3. Fixed Interval Schedule

 The re-enforcement is related to the hygiene factors

or administrative factors of the organization like
salary, organizational policy, interpersonal relationship,
status and the like.
 In the interval schedule the critical factor is time. As a
manager, one has to apply reinforcement schedule on a
fix interval of time.
 Daily wagers will look forward to get their salary at the
end of the day and those on piece rate of payment would
work hard to earn maximum.
 Fixed interval re-enforcement is not very effective.
 The re-enforcement is of temporary nature and does not
motivate individuals on a long-term basis.
 4. Variable Interval Re-enforcement

 In this method re-enforcement is not based on the fix

period of time.
 It varies from job to job.
 Individual’s behavior can be modified based on
incentives on a variable time period basis.
 Promotions, up gradation, or incentives in salary
structure coming on different timings that are not on a
pre-fixed basis motivate individuals and increment in
productivity is achieved.
 Variable interval re-enforcement schedule
generates higher rate of responses and is more
consistent
 5. Fixed Ratio Schedule

Fixed ratio schedule is related to administration of

reward system after the individual accomplishes a
particular volume of work.
A worker is paid or a re-enforcement is administered
after manufacturing of particular pieces of product
under piece rate of payment.
The individual works hard and displays a sense of
devotion to his work because of the proposed reward
for which a particular quantity has to be
manufactured.
The response level under fixed ratio schedule is
higher than under an Interval ratio schedule.
 6. Variable Ratio Schedule

 Variable ratio is similar to fix ratio schedule except that in variable

ratio, quantity is not fixed.
 Re-enforcement is awarded to an individual based on the situation
to situation.
 For example a sales person may be awarded a higher commission
on the sales he made irrespective of volume of sales.
 The incentive may also be given based on number of successful
sales calls made by the sales person.
 Variable ratio schedule has been most effective to modify individual
behavior or ensure sustenance of a particular behavior.
 The method draws a very rapid and positive response at a desirable
level.
 This type of reinforcement is considered to be very effective tool to
obtain willing obedience of subordinates in a particular situation.
 The impact largely would depend upon the timings and volume of
work performed by the individuals in the organization and the skill
of the moderator.
 7. Re-enforcement
 There are four types of re-enforcement namely Positive,
Negative, Punishment and Extinction.
 Positive and negative re-enforcement seeks to achieve a desirable
behavior by two different approaches while punishment and
extinction prevents undesirable behavior.
 These are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
A. Positive Re-enforcement
 Positive re-enforcement is institution of reward for a particular
desired behavior.
 The intensity of reward must stimulate a desired behavior.
 ”Shram Shri” award is reinforcement or a reward for innovation
in production.
 This is instituted so that individual works to achieve a high
standard. The awards instituted in film industry are to stimulate
artistic display by artists, which will have a lasting impact on the
public
 Positive Re-enforcement…..
 An array of awards in defense services is to stimulate
bravery during peace and war environment amongst
soldiers and improve overall efficiency.
 Arjun awards in the area of sports are to achieve excellence
in sports with a view to achieve skill and efficiency.
 Positive reinforcement to be effective should have following
pre-requisites
 The reward should match the expected behavior graph and
need spectrum of awards.
 Monetary rewards activate some people while others would
be happy with just a praise or recognition
 The re-enforcement or rewards should be contingent to the
degree of performance. Higher the performance required,
higher must be the recognition (Reward system).
 Positive Re-enforcement…..
 Rewards must be given on time.
 Delay in awards may not have desired effect and the
impact of reward would be lost.
 Field Marshal Slim used this tool very effectively during
World War II when he used to give gallantry awards to
the soldiers for their acts of bravery on the spot in the
battle field (front line) thereby intending to achieve high
morale and success in fierce battle actions.
 Re-enforcement must be applicable universally without
any structural variations. Disparity in rewards is counter-
productive.
 B. Negative Re-enforcement
 In organizations acts are committed or omitted.
 For commission of desired acts a reward is given while
rewards can also be given for displaying behavior by
terminating undesired consequences.
 Both, positive and negative re-enforcement techniques
are for strengthening desired behaviors.
 In former employees put in their best and work hard to
get financial and other rewards but in the later case of re-
enforcement employees work in such a way that they do
not invite negative comments or reprimand from
superiors.
 In work places, parking of vehicle at right places,
following instructions on training, abiding by safety
regulations, assisting employees in performance of their
duty are the forms of negative reinforcement
 C. Punishment

 Punishment is awarded to an individual for undesired

consequences of behavior.
 It is a method of decreasing frequency of occurrence of
unpleasant behavior and a tool generally used by
organizations for corrective or modification of individual
behavior.
 It is generally treated as an unpleasant consequence
contingent upon undesired behavior.
 It is corrective in nature and intended to reduce probability
of its recurrence.
 Punishment acts as deterrence to other individuals and
prevents them from doing an undesired act
 Punishment should not be given collectively to a group.
 Punishment should be awarded to an individual who is
habitual of undesired behavior.
 Punishment….

 Punishment can be reduction of salary, non-granting of

increment, fine and even removal from service.
 The gravity or the scale of punishment will depend upon the
nature of behavior displayed by an individual.
 Punishment should be used sparingly and not as a matter of
routine.
 It should be corrective in nature and not punitive. It should
focus on an act deserving punishment and not the subject
person.
 Punishment must be awarded with due care and made public
so that it acts as deterrence.
 While applying punishment as behavior modification for skill
development, due care must be taken by organizations to avoid
legal and social fall out.
 Following points should be kept in mind while
applying punishment: -
 Punishment….

1. Authority
 Authority that is entitled to award punishment must be
specified and notified to all concerned.
2. Process
 All employees should know the process of punishment. If
required this should be included in training program so that
awareness is brought about.
3.Show Cause
 Individual must be given opportunity to justify his actions. No
arbitrary decision should be taken.
4. Board for Inquiry
 An impartial body of persons should be formed to investigate
each event to decide whether the punishment is required to be
awarded.
 The gravity of the offence, the probable scale of punishment
and the individuals involved in the commission of an act.
 Punishment….

5. Time Bound
 All actions must be time bound and individual awarded
punishment in time.
6. Gravity
 Punishment must be commensurate with the gravity of the
offence.
D. Extinction
 Extinction refers to withdrawing of re-enforcement or
reward so that the happening becomes less frequent and
ultimately dies off. The method involves withdrawing
positive reinforcement earlier granted. Eliminating any re-
enforcement is called extinction. For example students are
given extra coaching for higher performance. Over a period
of time this positive re-enforcement leads to students
increased dependency on coaching by a teacher
Thanks !!!