PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMICAL PATHWAYS OF THE

NEURAL AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS INVOLVED IN

INTEGRATED BEHAVIOUR

LECTURE DELIVERED BY

DR. A.O. OLAJIDE

MBBS (IB), PGD (STATISTICS), MMP (UNILAG) FMC
PSYCH.
CONSULTANT PSYCHIATRIST
PSYCHOGERIATRIC UNIT
NEUROPSYCHIATRIC HOSPITAL
ARO, ABEOKUTA

2019 REVISION COURSE OF THE

NATIONAL POSTGRADUATE MEDICAL COLLEGE OF
NIGERIA (NPMCN)
PRIMARY CLASS
PRETEST
 What do you understand by integrated
behavior.
 Can you describe the basic structures of
the limbic system, its connection and
functions.
 Briefly enumerate the contributions of
endocrine system to behavior.
 Can you mention at least five (5) clinical
relevance of the limbic and endocrine
systems in behavior.
COURSE OUTLINE
1. INTEGRATED BEHAVIOUR
2. NEURAL SYSTEM (ANATOMICAL &
PHYSIOLOGICAL PATHWAY)
3. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (ANATOMICAL &
PHYSIOLOGICAL PATHWAY)
4. RELEVANCE TO PSYCHIATRY
5. QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
BACKGROUND
Modern neuroscience focuses on how to understand how the
nerve cells of the brain direct behavior.
Integrated function of the central nervous system denotes
those functions that are not directly involved in the processing
of sensory inputs or in the activity of the motor and autonomic
centers.
It involves behavior such as sleep/wake cycle, consciousness ,
language, thinking, memory, motivation and emotion
The structures sub serving these integrated functions are
located chiefly in 2 large part of the telencephalon.
 The limbic system
 The neocortex
CNS include the brain and spinal cord, which has three main
functions.
 To collect sensory inputs from the body and external environment

 To process and interpret the sensory inputs

 To respond appropriately to the sensory inputs.

Neural pathway connects one part of the nervous system to another using
bundles of axons called tracts .
Psychology is the systematic and scientific study of behavior and mental
processes.
Neuroscience shows that activity in the brain is intimately intertwined
with behavior and mental process.
Lesions and other brain abnormalities can be used to understand the
function of a healthy brain and their impact on behavior.

Integrated behavior are largely grouped under two (2) subgroup.

Limbic System – The seat of emotion that controls memory, pain, drive,
motivation, emotion and perception.
Neocortex – Motor functions and arousal.
INTRODUCTION
The Limbic system is a complex set of brain structures that lies
on both sides of the thalamus, under the cerebrum.
Collection of interconnected cortical and sub cortical structures
from the telencephalon, diencephalon and mesencephalon.
Limbic system directly connects the lower and higher brain
functions together, where the subcortical structures meet the
cerebral cortex.
It operates by influencing the endocrine system and the
autonomic nervous system.
Limbic system influences emotions , adrenaline flow, learning,
olfaction, long term memory
motivation, mood, behavior, sensations of pain and pleasure &
autonomic regulation.
Pathologically linked to encephalopathy, epilepsy,
psychotic symptoms, cognitive defects.
Commonly referred to as the Visceral brain or
Paleomammalian brain.
Anatomically and physiologically different which may
confuse people.
More of a functional than anatomical entity though
anatomically, situated on the
borderline between telencephalon and diencephalon as a
ring-shaped band (Limbic cortex).
Limbic system is functionally relevant in the followings
affects/emotions, memory, sensory processing ,time
perception ,attention ,consciousness ,instincts ,autonomic
/vegetative control and actions/motor behaviour
Brain Limbic system
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Limbic lobe was first used by Paul Pierre Broca in 1878 19 th
Century French
Surgeon and anthropologist to delineate the tissues
constituting the border between neo cortex and
diencephalon.

NB He called the limbic lobe the seat of the lower faculties

which predominates in the beast. The extra limbic mass
(neo cortex) as seat of superior faculties. Neuroanatomist
called it rhinencephalon – olfactory.

Limbic system introduced in 1952 by Paul D. Maclean, a

Physician and Neuroscientist.
Paul Kluver and Heinrich Bucy in 1939 demonstrated that
bilateral removal of temporal lobes in monkey leads to
hyper orality, decrease in aggression, reduced threshold
to sexual stimuli, inability to recognize familiar objects.
James Papez 1937 described anatomical model of emotion
called Papez circuit (hypothalamus, anterior thalamic
nuclei, cingulate cortex and hippocampus).
Limbic system as cortical representation of emotions
discovered in 1939 by Paul Kluver and Heinrich
Bucy.
In 1940, Egas Moniz used neurosurgical procedure of
prefrontal leucotomy to treat pathological anxiety
and agitation.
Paul D. Mclean 1949, expanded the Papez circuit to
include the pre frontal cortex, septum and amygdala,
thus inventing the original version of Limbic system.
Mc lean elaborated on the concept of Limbic system as
the Visceral brain – Presumed source of basic
emotions.
Scoville and Milner in 1957 reported that bilateral
neurosurgical resection of the medial temporal lobes
including the hippocampus and amygdala results in
severe impairment in memory function.

Paul D. Maclean developed the intriguing theory of the

“triune brain” to explain its evolution in 3 parts
(Limbic system, primitive R-complex brain and neo
cortex).
These components are:
1. The archipallium or primitive (reptilian) brain
comprises the brain stem structures such as medulla,
pons, cerebellum, mesencephalon. The oldest basal
nuclei – the globus pallidus and olfactory bulbs for
controlling breathing and motor movement.

2. The neopallium also known as the superior or

rational (new mammalian) brain comprises of the
hemisphere for speech and reasoning.

3. The Paleopallium or intermediate (old mammalian

brain) comprising the structures of the Limbic
system)
LIMBIC SYSTEM AND ITS CONNECTIONS
Connections of LS
- Connections within the system (intrinsic circuitary)
- Inputs to the system
- Outputs from the system
Intrinsic circuitary
- All parts of the Limbic system are interconnected
- Most important connection is between amygdala and hippocampus.
 Amygdala (stria teminalis) →Septal region
 →supra callosal gyrus (longitudinal striae) →
 Dentate gyrus → hippocampus.
2. Hippocampus (Fornix) →Septal region (diagonal band of Broca) →
amygdala.
Inputs into the system
- Inputs are received into the system from every
sensory system.
- Olfactory system is closely connected to the
amygdala and the Uncus of the hippocampus
and parahippocampal gyrus.
- Most sensory collaterals reach the septal region via
the Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB).
- (MFB = multineuronal pathway ascending from
midbrain through the lateral hypothalamus).
The neocortex of the temporal lobe is also
connected to the system
Outputs from LS
- Originate
either from hippocampus or amygdala
From hippocmpus:
Hippocampus →fornix → nc → of mamillary body
From mamillary body:
Mamillotegmental tract (Vicq d’ Azyr) →AT
Mamillotegmental tract →RF of midbrain
Multineuronal connections →other Hypothalamic nc
 To complete the circuit:
AT →Cingulate gyrus →hippocampus thus:
Hippocampus (Fornix) →Mamillary body →
Thalamus →Cingulate gyrus →hippocampus
This is the famous reverberating circuit suggested
by Papez in 1937 as basis the for emotional behaviour.
Because the cingulate gyrus is connected to most
Neocortical areas through intercortical
connections, the Papez circuit form the link
between the Limbic system and neocortex.
 From Amygdala:
Stria Medullaris →Habenular nc →IP(of midbrain via fasc.
Retr of. Meynett) →RF.
Summary
Outputs are sent from the Limbic system to the
following structures of the brain:
(1) The Neocortex
(2) The hypothalamus from here to lower autonomic centre
and to Hypophysis.
(3) Brain stem RF. Therefore, Sensory information filtered
through the Limbic system can influence conscious
voluntary sensory motor activity, autonomic and
endocrine functions and general level of arousal.
A. HIPPOCAMPUS
hippos - horse
campus - seamonster
Described as seahorse or silkworm structures are bilateral.
Hippocampal formation comprises of hippocampus and
related structures such as subiculum, and dentate gyrus.
has three (3) cell layers of cortex which projects into
the floor of the lateral ventricles.
Inner polymorphic cell layer, middle pyramidal cell layer
and outer molecular layer.
Transition from six (6) cellular layer to three (3) cellular
layer occur at the subiculum located in the medial
temporal lobe of the brain.
FUNCTIONS
 Processing of poly sensory information

 Formation and recall of spatial memories especially the dorsal

hippocampus & left hippocampus
 Implicated in maintenance of cognitive Maps for spatial navigation

 Covert & consolidate short memory to long term memory for

behavioural inhibition, memory and space.
 Huge impact in learning process through neurogenesis (upsurge of new
neurons or granule cells and creation of new neural circuit) in the
hippocampus

DAMAGE
Memory loss: anterograde (inability to form or retain
new memories), loss of spatial memory
Disorientation.
CAUSES
Hypoxia, starvation, encephalitis, medial temporal lobe
Epilepsy, electricshock, anxiogenic drugs, prolonged exposure to stress
hormones e.g glucocorticoids
B AMYGDALA COMPLEX
Almond-shaped collection of subcortical nuclei that lie in the anterior pole of
each temporal lobe, above the tip of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
FUNCTIONS
Explicit memory function responsible for influence on cognitive and
emotional functions.
Responsible for encoding ,storage and retrieval of Episodic-
Autobiographical Memory (EAM) networks
social processing-evaluation of faces in social situation & truthworthiness
Face recognition and for making association across stimulus modalities .
Stimulates the hippocampus to remember details surrounding the situation.
Help in reward, fear and social functions-mating.
DAMAGE
severe or gross behavioural (emotions, cognitive and perceptual)
abnormalities.
Kluver Bucy Syndrome: visual agnosia/psychic blindness (inability 2
recognise object ),strong oral tendencies,placidity,hypersexuality

CAUSES
Meningitis, temporal lobe surgery
CLINICAL RELEVANCE OF AMYGDALA
 Electrical stimulation of amygdala evokes aggressive
behaviour (anger, rage) in animals and appearance of
oral mechanisms (sniffing, licking, biting, swallowing).
Hippocampus and amygdala and other structures in the
LS seem to play significant role in violent behaviour. A
wide range of clinical conditions (explosive personality
disorder, antisocial personality and pathological
intoxications) have been correlated with EEG
abnormality in the LS.
ENDOCRINE PATHWAYS IN BEHAVIOUR
Psychiatric illness is profoundly influenced by the endocrine milieu.

This include normal and cyclical changes in hormone level as well as

abnormal hormone levels such as occurring under conditions of
profound stress.

Subtle endocrine alteration can lead to profound psychiatric

symptoms.

Psycho neuroendocrinology is the clinical study of hormone

fluctuations and their relationship to psychiatric illness.
HYPOTHALAMOPITUITARY AXIS
HYPOTHALAMUS
 Serves as a master regulator centre.
 Regulating food and fluid intake

 Regulates temperature

 Regulates the pituitary gland via the HPA axis.

HYPOTHAMUS PITUITARY AXIS

Hypothalamus regulates
• Appetite and weight

• Body temperature

• Production of breast milk

• Salt and water balance

 Child birth
 Emotions, behavior and memory

 Growth

 Sex drive

 Sleep – Wake

 Cycle & the body clock

C. HYPOTHALAMUS

Minor station between the cognitive and the visceral, communicating

with higher structures such as the thalamus and limbic cortex and on
the other hand, with the ascending fibre system from the brainstem
and spinal cord.
Major center for control of autonomic nervous system. A bilateral
structure, bounding the 3rd ventricle on each side, below the thalamus.
It extends posteriorly to the mammillary bodies and anteriorly to the
optic chiasm, contains important nuclei with diverse functions related
to the maintenance of homeostasis.
Functions
The regulation of sleep, sexual and defensive function.
expression of basic emotional response and behaviour.
regulate body temperature, Controls endocrine system,
regulation of water and food intake
Damage
Hypopituitarism, neurogenic diabetes insipidus, tertiary hypothyroidism
Causes
Malnutrition, radiation, surgery, trauma, tumor, lesion and genetic disorder.
HYPOTHALAMUS DYSFUNCTION
 Symptoms are due to hormone, deficiency, brain signals.
 In children growth problem, either too much or too little
growth.

In older children, puberty occurs too early or too late.

Hypothalamus dysfunction
* Tumor symptoms may includes headache or loss of
vision.
 Hypothalamus symptoms may include feeling cold all
the time, constipation, fatigue or over weight-pain.
Low adrenal function symptoms may include fatigue,
weaknesses, poor appetite, weight loss and lack of interest
in activities.

BRAIN STEM FUNCTIONS

Certain cells that produces several of the
Neurotransmitters:
1. Susbstance nigra (Dopamine)

2. Locus ceruleus (Norepinephrine)

3. Raphe nuclei (Serotonnin)

These neurotransmitter pathway are essential for

modulatory motor control, memory, mood, motivation and
metabolic state.
Rostral Brain Stem disturbance include:

o Amnestic syndrome
o Hypersomnia
o Akinetic mutism
NTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
(1) Dopamine - Attention and executive
functioning. Motivated
behavior (reward and pleasure seeking,
addictions, mood, movement
psychosis.
(2) Noradrenaline - Arousal, concentration,
learning, memory, mood, stress
response.
(3) Adrenaline - Peripheral activation and
arousal, fight or flight response.
(4) Serotonin - Mood, anxiety, appetite, eating
behavior, sleep
(5) Acetyl choline - Arousal, cognition, memory,
contraction of skeletal muscle
 Glutamate - Excitation
 GABA - Inhibition
STIMULATION OF HIPPOCAMPUS EVOKES RESPIRATORY AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES, GENERALISED AROUSAL, SEXUAL
RESPONSES (ERECTION)

- Stimulation of septal area can decrease aggression in

monkeys.
- Stimulation of certain limbic structures can be
pleasurable for experimental animals hence experimental
animals with implanted electrodes can learn quickly how
to press lever when lever pressing is followed by
electrical stimulation of pleasurable areas of the Limbic
system (self stimulation).
 BILATERAL ABLATION OF THE ORAL PARTS OF
TEMPORAL LOBES (LOSS OF AMYGDALA, UNCUS,
PARTS OF HIPPOCAMPAL FORMATION RESULTS IN
KLUVER BUCY SYNDROME (KLUVER & BUCY 1939)
CHARACTERISED BY: VISUAL AGNOSIA (INABILITY
TO RECOGNIZE OBJECT BY SIGHT), STRONG ORAL
TENDENCY, LOSS OF FEAR AND AGGRESSION
HYPERSEXUAL BEHAVIOUR.
 In humans, lesions within the Limbic system results in
disorder of memory: Short term memory is not
consolidated into long term memory – Korsakoff’s
syndrome.
THE PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF THIS
DISORDER IS HAEMORRHAGE IN THE
MAMILLARY BODIES AND/OR OTHER PARTS OF
THE LIMBIC SYSTEM.
Limbic dementia:
When damage is exclusively to the Limbic area,
Gasion& Gilles 1973, reported behavioural
alterations
Identical to those seen in classical dementia –
Limbic dementia.
Uncinate fits:
- Constellation of symptoms seen in TLE arising from
involvement of Uncus: olfactory aura, involuntary
movements, sensations of déjà vu and jamais vu are
accompanied by changes of behaviour seen in
schizophrenia.
REFERENCE
 1. Handelman WJ. Students’ Atlas of
Neuroanatomy Philadephia: WB Saunders; 1994:179.
 2. Clarke D. Boutros N, Mendez M. The Brain
and Behaviour: an introduction to
behavioural neuroanatomy. Cambridge, NY:
Cambridge University Press;2005.
 3. Sadock BJ, Sadock VA. Functional
Neuroanatomy In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA.eds
Kaplan and Sadock. Synopsis of
psychiatry 10th ed. Walter.
 4. Companion to Psychiatric Studies. 8th
Edition by John Stone.
THANK YOU ALL FOR
LISTENING
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.