Theory and Design of Structures IV

(ARCH 3202)

Chapter 3- Bridge Structures

Learning outcomes: one should be able to:
 Understand what bridges are.
 List and describe different types of bridges.
 Identify criteria for bridge type selection
 Understand Structural Design Considerations
 3.1 Introduction
 A bridge is a structure providing passage over an
obstacle (i.e. a river, valley, road or railway).
 The passage may be for highway or railway, pedestrian,
canal or pipeline.

 bridges add to the beauty of cities and towns. Bridges

aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of
the locations around them
 Bridges also have military strategic importance.
3.1 Introduction
3.1 Introduction
3.1 Introduction
Basic Concepts
 Span - the distance between
two bridge supports, whether
they are columns, towers or
the wall of a canyon.
 Force - any action that tends
to maintain or alter the
position of a structure
 Compression - a force which
acts to compress or shorten
the thing it is acting on.
 Tension - a force which acts
to expand or lengthen the
thing it is acting on. -
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Basic Concepts
 Beam - a rigid, usually horizontal, structural element

 Pier - a vertical supporting structure, such as a pillar

 Cantilever - a projecting structure supported only at one end,
like a shelf bracket or a diving board Beam Pier
 Load - weight distribution throughout a structure
 Truss - a rigid frame composed of short, straight pieces joined
to form a series of triangles or other stable shapes
Basic Concepts

Stable - (adj.) ability to resist collapse and deformation; stability (n.)

characteristic of a structure that is able to carry a realistic load without
collapsing or deforming significantly
Deform - to change shape
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COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

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Basic Concepts
 Buckling is what happens when the force of compression
overcomes an object's ability to handle compression. A mode of
failure characterized generally by an unstable lateral deflection
due to compressive action on the structural element involved.
 Snapping is what happens when tension overcomes an object's
ability to handle tension.
 To dissipate forces is to spread them out over a greater area, so
that no one spot has to bear the brunt of the concentrated force.
 To transfer forces is to move the forces from an area of
weakness to an area of strength, an area designed to handle the
forces
3.2 Types of Bridges
 Bridges are classified according to their
superstructure,
 and superstructure may be classified based on the
following characteristics
 Material
 Load path characteristics
 Span length
 Usage
 Structural form Position (for movable bridges)
 Span types
 Deck type (for combination and double deck bridges)
 Classification of Bridges

Material Steel Concrete Wood

Hybrid Stone/Brick

Usage Pedestrian Highway

Railroad

Span Short Medium Long

Structural Slab Girder Truss

Form Arch Suspension Cable-Stayed

Structural Arrangement
3.2 Types of Bridges
Construction material
3.2 Types of Bridges
Functionality
3.2 Types of Bridges
Span

• Culverts <6m
• Short – span bridges 6-38m
• Medium-span bridges 28-120m
• Long-span bridges over 120
3.2 Types of Bridges
Horizontal/vertical arrangement
3.2 Types of Bridges
Span Arrangement
3.2 Types of Bridges
Movements
i. Movable bridge
ii. Fixed bridge
3.2 Types of Bridges
Structural form/arrangement
i. Slab bridge
ii. Beam/girder bridge
iii. Portal frame bridge
iv. Arch
v. Truss
vi. Suspension
vii.Cable stayed
 3.2 Types of Bridges
a) Concrete Slab Bridges
 The span lengths are more limited than beam bridges
(12m Max. for single span bridges).
 The unit cost is generally lower.
3.2 Types of Bridges
b) Slab-girder Bridges
 the deck is supported on girders that are in turn
supported on abutments or piers.
 The deck is usually made of concrete
 The girders may be reinforced concrete, pre stressed
concrete, steel or timber.
 The slab-girders system is most suitable for short span
bridges. beam bridges rarely span more than 80m
 the pre stressed box girder can be built segmentally to
medium spans.
 Plate girder bridges are economically suitable for spans
in the 60m range
3.2 Types of Bridges
b) Slab-girder Bridges
b) Slab-stringer bridges

Figure a:Cross section of monolithically cast T-girder

Figure b:Cross section of monolithically cast Box-girder 2

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3.2 Types of Bridges
c) Truss Bridges
 A truss is a structure that transfers the loads as
axial forces. Truss bridges are used for larger
spans for which the depth of girder bridges is not
practical
c) Truss Bridges
◦ Shorter span range, constant depth: pratt, warren, howe
◦ Longer spans, variable depth: parker
◦ Very long spans, slope >600: k-truss

Figure c: Truss Bridge

3.2 Types of Bridges
c) Truss Bridges
 Pros:
 Very strong;
 For long span

 Cons:
 high
maintenance;
 generally not
considered
attractive
3.2 Types of Bridges
d) Rigid Frame Bridges
consist of superstructures supported on
vertical or slanted monolithic legs (columns),
and are economically suitable for moderate
medium – span lengths.
For v-shaped valleys with rock foundation
Both steel and concrete is used to construct
this type of bridge, the girder being T-or box
– girder.
3.2 Types of Bridges
e) Arch Bridges
Arch bridges are the oldest types of bridges
ever built.
A true arch transfers loads by pure
compression, however, the variable position of
the live load causes super imposed bending.
 3.2 Types of Bridges
e) Arch Bridges
 Arches can be classified different ways
 Position of deck –Deck – arch bridge, Through
arch and Half – through arches

Arch bridges are economical for medium and

long spans.
Degree of articulation: two-hinged or three-hinged arch
3.2 Types of Bridges
e) Arch Bridges
 Pros and Cons of Arch Bridges
 Pros:
 Wide range of materials can be used;
 considered attractive;
 very strong
 Cons:
 Relatively expensive;
 typically, designs are limited to certain sites (e.g.,
where the ground can support the large forces at
the base of the arch; where the span-to-depth ratio
of the arch is proportional; or where an arch is
visually appropriate)
 3.2 Types of Bridges
f) Cantilever Bridges
 Essentially, a cantilever bridge consists of two simple
spans (anchor spans) with cantilever on each side of
either shore supporting a short suspended span in
the middle of the stream or river.

 a cantilever span can be erected

without a false work,
3.2 Types of Bridges
g) Cable Stayed Bridges
 These bridges are very competitive economically for
medium and long spans.
 Loads are transmitted by the inclined stays, which
connect the deck to the towers.

• Piers – Supports the Towers

• Towers – Support the Cables
• Cables – Thick Steel Ropes from which the decking
is suspended
• Decking – Supports the Roadway
3.2 Types of Bridges
g) Cable Stayed Bridges
 They can be built with girders of either steel or
prestressed concrete.
 one of the most aesthetically pleasing structures
 Cons:
Typically
more
expensive
than other
types of
 Pros: bridges,
 Span medium to long distances; except
 less expensive and faster to build suspension
than suspension bridges; bridges
 considered attractive
 3.2 Types of Bridges
h) Suspension Bridges
 spanning the longest distances and for their superior
aesthetics.
 It consists of four essential parts: the towers,
the anchorage, the cables, and the deck.
 3.2 Types of Bridges
h) Suspension Bridges
 Pros:
 Span large distance;
 considered attractive;
 allow large ships and heavy
boat traffic to pass
underneath

 Cons:
 Expensive
 Higher stiffness is required
for the bridge deck to avoid
wind-induced vibrations.
 3.2 Types of Bridges
Classification by Span Types
 Simple span bridges – are suitable for short spans
 Multiple simple spans-used for medium or long
span bridges, depending on the site conditions and
economy.
 Continuous beams – advantage over simple spans
include reduced weight, and greater
stiffness, smaller deflection, fewer bearing and
expansion joints, provide redundancy and greater
overload capacity than simple spans.
 Discussion on Classification
According To Structural Arrangement

The classification of the bridge types can also be according to the

location of the main structure elements relative to the surface on
which the user travels, as follows:

•Main Structure Below the Deck Line

•Main Structure Above the Deck Line

•Main Structure coincides with the Deck Line

Main Structure Below the Deck Line
Masonry Arch

Concrete Arch
Arch
Bridge Inclined Leg Frame Arch

Rigid Frame Arch

Steel Truss-Arch
Truss-Arch
Bridge Steel Deck Truss
Main Structure Above the Deck Line

Suspension
Bridges

Cable Stayed Bridges

Through-Truss
Bridge
Main Structure Coincides with the
Deck Line
Slab (solid and voided)

T-Beam (cast-in-place)

I-beam (pre-cast or pre-stressed

Wide-flange beam (composite & non-

Girder composite
Bridge
Concrete Box (cast-in-place, segmental &
pre-stressed

Steel Plate Girder (straight & haunched)

Steel box (Orthotropic deck)

Classification by Load – Path Characteristics

 One-dimensional systems – slab bridges.

These are one-way slabs
 Two-dimensional systems -slab- stringer

bridges. The load transfer is form slab to

stringers and from stringers to
abutments/piers.
Classification based on Life Span of Bridges

 Permanent bridges – bridges that serve for a

longer period of time.
 Temporary bridges – have a short service

period. An example is military bridges.

Classification by Position for Movable Bridges
 Bascule Bridge – A motor driven pinion that engages
rack opens or closes the span.
 Lift bridge – moves vertically up and down as a whole.
 Swing Bridge – provides passage to ships by swinging
or rotating horizontally
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
 Selection of bridge type in general is related to
economy, safety and aesthetics.
a) Geometric Conditions of the Site
 horizontal and vertical alignment of the
highway route and clearances
 For Example: if the roadway is on a curve,
continuous box girders and slabs are a good
choice because they have a pleasing
appearance, can readily be built on a curve, and
have a relatively high torsion resistance.
 Example Bure _ Nekemt bridge curved Box Girder
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
b) Subsurface Conditions of the Site
The soil type determine whether piers and
abutments can be founded on spread footings
or piles.
For example, rigid frame bridge requires
strong foundation material that can resist both
horizontal and vertical thrust.
Drainage conditions on the surface and below
ground must be understood because they
influence the magnitude of earth pressures,
movement of embankments, and stability of
cuts or fills
 The potential for seismic activity at a site
should also be a part of the subsurface
investigation. If seismicity is high, the
substructure details will change, affecting the
superstructure loads as well
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
C) Aesthetics
 It should be the goal of every bridge designer to obtain
a positive aesthetic response to the bridge type selected
 There are no equations, no computer programs or
design specifications that can make our bridge beautiful.
 Aesthetics must be a part of the bridge design program
from the beginning. It can’t be added on at the end to
make the bridge look nice. At that time it is too late. From
the beginning, the engineer must consider aesthetics in
the selection of spans, depths of girders, piers,
abutments, and the relationship.
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
d) Economics and ease of Maintenance
The initial cost and maintenance cost over the
life of the bridge govern when comparing the
economics of different bridge types.
minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints,
and widest spacing of girders will be the most
economical.
Generally concrete structures require less
maintenance than steel structures.
e) Legal Considerations
The requirements of environmental laws and
other applicable laws much be met.
Examples of certain regulations are as follows:
•Permits Over Navigable Waterways
•National Environmental policy Act
•Department of Transportation Act
•National historic preservation Act
•Clean Air Act
•Noise Control Act
•Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
•The Endangered Species Act
•Water Bank Act
•Wild and Scenic Rivers Act
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
Bridge Types for Different Span Lengths
a) Small Span Bridges (up to 15m)
 Culverts: They are constructed of steel, precast or cast
in situ reinforced concrete. Their structural form can be
pipe, pipe arch, rigid frame box or slab box
culverts.
 Slab Bridges: are the simplest and least expensive
 can be built for small spans up to 12m.
 can be built on ground supported false work or
constructed of precast elements.
 T-Girder bridges: are generally economical for spans of
10-20m. These are usually constructed on ground
supported false work.
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
Rolled steel Girder Bridges: wide flange beam bridges
are simple to design and construct. They can be
economical up to 30m spans if the deck is made
composite.

b) Medium Span Bridges (up to 50m)

• Precast Concrete Box Girder Bridges:
• Composite Rolled Steel Girder
• Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridges:
• Cast in – Situ Reinforced Concrete Box Girder
• Cast in Place post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder
• Composite Steel Box Girder Bridges:
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
c) Large Span Bridges (50-150m)
• composite steel plate girder,
• cast in place post tensioned concrete box girder,
• post tensioned concrete segmental bridges,
• concrete and steel arch bridges, and
• steel truss bridges.

d) Extra Large (Long) Span Bridges (over 150m)

cable-stayed and suspension bridges are logical and
efficient choices for long span bridges.
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
Closing Remarks on Selection of Bridge Type
 In the selection of bridge type, there is no unique
answer.
 For each span length range, there is more than one
bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria.
 There are regional difference and preferences
because of available materials, skilled workers, and
knowledgeable contractors.
3.3. Selection of Bridge Type
3.4 components of common type of bridge
3.4 components of common type of bridge
3.5 Selection of Bridge Site
There are three initial considerations to bear in
mind in selection of the site:
 A bridge site must offer appropriate vertical
and horizontal alignments (skew angle above
20o should be avoided due to increased
bridge costs).
 Its soils must be of sufficient strength to
ensure the stability of the structure the site.
 The bridge and its associated works should
not have an adverse impact on adjoining
land or buildings, or be susceptible to
damage from/to the local environment.
3.5 Selection of Bridge Site
There is a wide range of sites for bridges in
rural areas but the choice may be limited in
urban areas and for Passovers.
An ideal site for bridge crossing is one that:
 is on a straight reach of the river.
 where the flow is steady without serious
whirls and cross
 currents is beyond the disturbing influence
of large tributaries
 has well defined and stable high banks
above flood level
 has uniform flow i.e. larger average depth
compared to localized maximum depth
3.5 Selection of Bridge Site
 has reasonable straight approach roads
 has good foundation conditions
 has short span (narrow channel)
 does not require expensive river training
work
 does not require excessive underwater
construction
A bridge aligned at right angles to the river
results in the shortest superstructure.
A skewed bridge requires more material and
is more complicated to design and construct.
3.5 Selection of Bridge Site
The location of the bridge in relation to the
alignment of the approaches may be decided
as below.
 Total span < 60m-The alignment of the
approaches will govern.
 60m<Total span < 300m-Both the alignment
and good bridge site govern.
 Total span>300m-Good bridge site governs.
Selection of a suitable bridge site especially
for major bridges is teamwork consisting of
highway engineer, bridge engineers, geologist
and hydraulic engineer.
It is most common that two to five different
alignments are compared and evaluated
3.6 Span Determination

Economical Span

 For a given lineal waterway the total cost

of the superstructure increase with
increase in span length.
 The most economical span length is that
for which the cost of superstructure is
minimized to the point at which the total
cost is a minimum.
3.6 Span Determination

Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design

discharge at design flood.
lineal waterway that passes the design
discharge should be provided (plus free
board).
When a river has a wide flood plain, the
economical solution may be using short span
bridge with proper scour protection
3.6 Span Determination
Location of Piers
 Piers should be located in such a manner that they can
provide the required lineal waterway and navigational
clearance.
 The most economical spans should be adopted as far
as possible.
 Piers and abutments should also be located to make
the best use of the foundation conditions available.
 The alignment of piers and abutments should, if
possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow
 Bridge crossings over alluvial rivers nearly always
require training works
 3.6 Span Determination
Free Board
 The free board allows for uncertainty in determining
DFL
 The minimum free board above the design water level
is given in table below

3-30 0.6
30-300 0.9
>300 1.2
 For arched structures the clearance will be measured
at quarter points of the span.
3.6 Span Determination
Clearance above road way
 The minimum clearance above roadways shall be at
least 5.1m.
 Light superstructures (timber, steel trusses, steel
girders, etc) will have a minimum clearance height of
5.3m above roadways.
 Underpasses for pedestrian and bicycles should not
be less than 2.4m.
 For cattle and wildlife underpasses should be
designed as the normal height of the actual kind of
animal plus 0.5m and
 for horse riding, the clear height should not be less
than 3.4m.
 Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height
of at least 6.1m.
 3.6 Span Determination
Grade Requirements
 Often in mountainous areas the roadway grade is
governed by capacity of heaviest vehicle to climb,
vertical curve and sight distance.
 These grade requirements may increase the bridge
span more that required by hydraulic design.
3.7 TYPES OF LOADS

 Loads considered in Bridge analysis are:

1. Gravity Loads
2. Lateral Loads
3. Forces due to deformation
4. Collision Loads
GRAVITY LOADS
 Gravity loads are the loads caused by the weight of an

object on the bridge and applied in a downward direction

toward the center of the earth. Such loads may be:
a) Permanent Gravity Loads
b) Transient Gravity Loads

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3.7 Type of Loads
Permanent Loads
Dead Loads
 DC: dead load of structural components
and Nonstructural attachments
 DW: dead load of wearing Surfaces and
Utilities
Earth Loads
 EV: vertical pressure from earth Fill
 EH: horizontal earth pressure load
 ES: earth surcharge load
 DD: down drag
 Transient Loads
Live Loads
 LL: Vehicular live load
 PL: pedestrian live load
 IM: vehicular dynamic load allowance
 CE: vehicular centrifugal force
 BR: vehicular braking force
 CT: vehicular collision force

Earth pressure due to live load surcharge, LS

 Wind Loads
 WL: wind on live load
 WS: wind load on structure

Force effects due to superimposed deformations

 TG: temperature gradient
 TU: uniform temperature
 SH: shrinkage
 CR: creep
 SE: settlement
 EL: accumulated locked-in effects resulting
From the construction process
Earthquake Load, EQ
 Water Loads, WA
 Static pressure Buoyancy
 Stream pressure
 Wave load
 Change in foundation due to scour
Friction Forces, FR
Vessel Collision, CV
 COLLISION LOADS

Collision loads include:

1.Vessel Collision load
2.Rail Collision Load
3.Vehicle Collision Load
Minimum depth