A Research All Chap. PPT With Course Outline 6.2.2014E.C

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Research Methods in Accounting & Finance
All Chapter with course outline
Organized by: Solomon Ch., October . 2021

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1-2 SMU
Faculty of Accounting and Finance
Course Outline (updated)
Course Title: Research Methods in Accounting and Finance
Course Description
This course is to provide some insights into the practice and experience of
doing research. It is aimed primarily at accounting and finance students
undertaking research for the first time. The course will cover both
quantitative and qualitative methods that employ primary as well as
secondary data related to financial position by using ratio analysis. Students
shall be made familiar with techniques and systems of collecting, analyzing,
interpreting, and reporting business information. This course contributes to
the students’ professional competencies by giving training in the analytic
and research skills that can be applied to the solution of problems
encountered in their professional lives. It is predominantly targeted at
accounting and finance students the subject matter covered is also
applicable to interdisciplinary research and is thus suitable for those
undertaking a research project in other social science subjects 2
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• Chapter 1: Introduction to Research Methods (4
Cr.Hrs)
• Content:
Concept of Scientific Research
Meanings of Research
Business Research
Qualities of Good Research
Motivation of Research for Accounting & Finance
Objectives of Research in Accounting and Finance
Research
Research Methods vs Research Methodology
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• Chapter Two: Types of Research (3 Cr.hrs)
– Based on the base of the outcome
 Basic research vs Applied Research
– Based on the base of the purpose
 Exploratory research
 Descriptive research
 Correlation Research
 Explanatory research and
 Predictive research
– Based on the base of the process
 Qualitative research
 Quantitative research
 Mixed research
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1-5 Research Methods in Accounting & Finance
Chapter Three:
Define Research Problem & Guidelines to Prepare a research Proposal (18 Cr.hrs)
Formulation of the Research problem related with Accounting & Finance
What is research problem
Defining and formulating the research problem
Techniques involved in defining the research problem
Evaluation of the research problem
Research Questions, Research Objectives, and Hypothesis Formulation
Developing Research Questions
Research Questions versus specific objectives
Formulation of Research Objectives
Develop the Hypothesis
 Hypothesis versus Research Questions
 Possible sources of Hypothesis
 Null and Alternative Hypothesis
 Characteristics of Good Hypothesis
Research proposal
Definition of Research Proposal
The purpose of research proposal regarding with Accounting & Finance
Components( elements) of Research Proposal
Proposal writing related with Accounting & Finance (written Assignment) 5
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Chapter Four:
Review of Literature (3 cr.hrs)
Types of literature review
How to Conduct a Review of
literature
Developing Conceptual Framework
Modeling the relationship
Validity Concern
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Chapter Five: Research Process in Detail (20
cr.hrs)
Research Design
Definition of research design
Types of research Design
 Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods Design
 Sampling and Sample Size determination
Sampling Design
The Need for sampling
Types of sampling Design
 Probability sampling Design
 Non probability sampling Design
Sample size determination 7
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Chapter Five: Research Process in Detail (22 cr.hrs)…...
Sources and Collection of Data
 Types and sources of Data
 Methods of Primary Data collection related with Accounting &
Finance
 Methods of Secondary Data collection related with Accounting
& Finance
Methods of Data Analysis and Interpretation
Data Preparation (editing, coding , classifying,tabulation)
Data Analysis
Quantitative Analysis
Qualitative analysis
Data Interpretation
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Chapter Five: Research Process in Detail (22 cr.hrs)…...
Research Ethics in Accounting and Finance
The Basics of ethics
Ethical guidelines
Research Ethics Explained
Codes and Policies for Research Ethics
Report Writing
Significance of Report Writing
Steps in Report Writing
Types of Research Report
Oral presentation
Referencing
In Text Referencing
And Referencing
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• Teaching Methodology
 Lectures
 Case Studies
 Proposal Writing
 Proposal Presentation
 Group Discussions
 Class Debating
• Mode of Assessment
• Test and quiz===============20% (individual)
• Assignment (proposal writing)===30% (group)
• Final Exam================50% (individual)
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• References
 Audrey, David, William, Robert and Kevin., (2017), Research Methods
for Accounting and Finance, Goodfellow Publishers Ltd
 Dr. Amit A, (2018), Research Methodology in Accounting and Finance
(1st edition), Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd
 Malcolm Smith, ( 2003), Research Methods in Accounting, SAGE
Publications Ltd, London
 Saunders, M., Lewis, P., Thornhill, A., (2019), Research Methods for
Business
 Students, (8th edition), Financial Times Press, Pearson, London.
 Zikmund, W. G. (2009). Business Research Methods, (8th Ed),South
western college publishing
 Kothari (2004), Research Methodology Methods and Techniques, (2nd
Edition),new age International (p) limited, publishers.
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Chapter One : Introduction to Research Methods
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Chapter One
Introduction to Research Methods
Meaning,
Meaning,Definition
Definitionand
andConcept
Concept
of
of
Scientific
Scientific RESEARCH
RESEARCH
Organized by: Solomon Chekole, 2020

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1-13 Meaning, Definition and Concept
“Research is a multiple solution for one problem”
Research:- To search new ways to satisfy our existing
problems.
Solution:- Solution in research can b multiple for a
single problem. So there is no correct and incorrect
concept in research.
Problem Solution
Activity
Systematically Unsystematically
Chances of success is Chances of success is not

maximum the company’s maximum the company’s
profitability etc profitability etc
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Meaning, Definition and Concept
Research commonly refers to a search for

knowledge. Some people consider research
as a movement from known to unknown
Research: is a process of systematic activities
to reach a solution of existing problem
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Meaning, Definition and Concept ….
If there is a problem there is always a

research
Therefore, research defined as the process in
which a person observes phenomena again
and again and collects data and analyses
then s/he draws conclusion.
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1-16 Meaning, Definition and Concept ….
In general, research is a
Scientific: based on provable evidence
Systematic: Research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in specified sequences in accordance with the well-defined
rules. (This characteristics will not rule out creative thinking but
certainly does reject the use of guessing, and intuition in
arriving at conclusion
Logical: The research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction
are of great value in carrying out a research.
Empirical: It implies the research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deal with concrete data
that provides a basis for external validity to research results.
Replicable: This character allows the result to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for
decision 16
In short research is.....
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• Searching Again and Again

• Travel from dark to light
• Finding the fact that will act
• Searching for facts
• Organized inquiry
• Search for truth
• To search new ways to satisfy our
existing problems.
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business research
• is business research different from other
researches?
• In short, business research deals with
business phenomena such as the price or
supply of a commodity, or sales forecasts for
a particular item, knowledge about market
behavior, marketing strategies required to
achieve a goal, and so on.
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business research…
 Why is Business Research Conducted?
 To gain a competitive advantage.
 To test new products and services.
 To solve a management/organizational problem.
 To provide information which may help to avoid future business
problems?
 To forecast future sales.
 To better understand shifts in consumer attitudes and tastes.
 To enhance profitability.
 To reduce operational costs.
 To enable management to prioritize strategic options for the future.
 The major purpose of business research is to provide executives
knowledge regarding the organization, the markets, the economy,
finance, and sales
Motives of Doing Research
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The possible motives for doing research can be

either one or a combination of the following:
To find new generalizations with old data
To know old conclusions with new data
To attempt to reach more conclusions from the same set of
data
To put forward an entirely original idea or theory, or to
discover an unexplored horizon of knowledge
To find or to resolve contradictions existing in the area of
study.
Motives of Doing Research..
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What makes people to undertake research?

• Desire to get a research degree along with
its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
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Motives of Doing Research..
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• Desire to be of service to society;

• Desire to get respectability.
• However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors
motivating people to undertake research studies.
• Many more factors such as directives of government,
employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
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Objectives of Business Research
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The research has the following three

objectives:
•1. Theoretical objective
•2. Factual objective and
•3. Application objective.
Objectives of Business Research…
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1. Theoretical objective
Those researches whose objectives are
theoretical formulate the new
theories, principles or laws. Such type
of research is explanatory because it
explains the relationships of certain
variables.
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2. Factual Objective
Those researches whose objective is
factual find out new facts. This objective is
by nature descriptive. These researches
describe facts or events, which happened
previously. Such type of research is done
in history.
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2. Application Objective
The research having application objective
does not contribute a new knowledge in
the fund of human knowledge but
suggests new applications. By application,
we mean improvement and modification
in practice. For example if anyone gives a
new application of electricity, then such
type of research has application objective.
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Criteria for a Good Research
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1)The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible,
2)The purpose of the research should be clearly
defined and common concepts be used.
3)The researcher should report with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings
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Criteria for a Good Research….
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria..
4) The analysis of data should be adequate to reveal
its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully.
5)Conclusion should be confined to those justified by
the data of the research and limited to those for which
the data provide an adequate basis.
6) Great confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.
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Characteristics of research
• Research is directed towards the solution of a
problem
• Research emphasis the development of
generalization, principles or theories.
• Research is based on observable experience or
empirical evidence.
• Research demands accurate observation and
description
• Research involves gathering new data from
primary and first hand sources or using existing
data for a new purpose.
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Characteristics of research Cont’d…
• In other words, we can state the
qualities of a good research as under:
 Good research is systematic, : It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well
defined set of rules
 Good research is logical, This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great
value in carrying out research

 Good research is empirical It implies that research is related basically to one
or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis
for external validity to research results
 Good research is replicable This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
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Research Methods vs Methodology

• Research methods may be understood as all
those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or
techniques, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research
operations.
• Research methodology is a way to
systematically solve the research problem.
It may be understood as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically.
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Cont’d
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Thus, when we talk of research

methodology we not only talk of the
research methods but also consider the
logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study and explain
why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others
so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher
himself or by others.
Chapter Cont’d
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one Review Question
 What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
 Define business research and describe its task.
 Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
 What are the criteria of a good research?
 Discuss the importance of knowing how business research is done?
 What makes people to undertake research?
 What is the purpose of Accounting & Finance Research?
 Which of the following organizations are likely to use business research? Why?
How?
 Manufacturer of breakfast cereals
 Manufacturer of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners
 The Federal Trade Commission
 A hospital
 A company that publishes business textbooks

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CHAPTER TWO
Types of Research

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Types of research… based on outcomes ..
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Applied Research
Research done with the intention
of applying the results of the
findings to solve specific problems
currently being experienced in the
organization is called Applied
Research
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Basic Research/pure research

• Research done chiefly to enhance the
understanding of certain problems that
commonly occur in organizational settings,
and seek methods of solving them is called
basic or fundamental research.
• It is also known as pure research.
• Such knowledge generated is usually later
applied in organizational setting for
problem solving.
1-38 Basic Research/pure Vs Applied Research
Basic Research/pure: Applied Research:
Purpose: • Purpose:
• Expand knowledge of • Improve understanding of
processes of business and particular business or
management management problem
• Results in universal • Results in solution to
principles relating to the problem
process and its • New knowledge limited to
relationship to outcomes problem
• Findings of significance and • Findings of practical
value to society in general relevance and value to
manager(s) in
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organisation(s) 38
On the basis of the purpose Cont’d....
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1. Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)

It is also called preliminary research. As its name implied, such
research is aimed at discovering, identifying and formulating a
research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no
studies that can be referred, such research is needed.
2. Descriptive Research is sets out to describe and to
interpret what is.
Goals of Descriptive research
 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a processes, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic background information on a context
 To create a set of categories or classify types
 To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject
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3. Correlation Research
Correlational studies describe relationships
between variables.
Research that studies the relationship between
two or more variables is also referred to as a
correlational study .
While correlational studies can suggest that there is
a relationship between two variables, finding a
correlation does not mean that one variable causes a
change in another variable.
The degree of association is often measurable.
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4. Analytic ( Explanatory )research

Analytical research uses facts or information already
available, and analyzes them to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
you may begin to ask “why” things are the way they are.
Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.
Goals of analytical (Explanatory) research
To determine the accuracy of a principle or a theory
To find out which competing explanation is better
To advance knowledge about an underling process
To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more completes
To extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues
To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction
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4. Analytic ( Explanatory ) research …..

Example
How can we maximize our profit?
How can we expand the range of our services?
How can we improve the delivery times of our
products? Etc…
For example, a descriptive research may discover that
10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas
the explanatory researcher is more interested in learning
why parents abuse their children. goes beyond simple
description to model empirically the social phenomena
under investigation.
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5. Predictive research
Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things
happened. It predicts (forecast) the possible (probability of
happening similar situation in other places.
It tries to explain about the probability of happening
similar thing in the future.
Example
How would increase an interest rate affect our profit
margin?
What type of packaging will improve the sales of our
products?
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On the basis of the Process
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1. Qualitative research
Data that are not characterized by numbers, and instead are
textual, visual, or oral; focus is on stories, visual
portrayals, meaningful characterizations, interpretations,
and other expressive descriptions
2. Quantitative research
addresses research objectives through empirical
assessments that involve numerical measurement and
analysis approaches.
3. Mixed research are both Qualitative and quantitative
research, Both open ended & Close ended question are
used
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On the basis of the Process
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Quantitative methods Mixed Method Qualitative Method

 Performance data,  Multiple forms  interview data,
attitude data, data drawing observation data,
observational on all document data,
data, and census possibilities audio-visual data
data  Both open  Open ended
 Instrumental Base ended & Close Questions
ended question  Text and image
question are used Analysis
 Only Statistical  Statistical &  Themes &
data analysis Test Analysis patters
 Statistical  Across Data interpretations
Interpretations base
interpretations
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Comparing Qualitative and Quantitative Research
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Chapter Cont’d
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Two Review Question
 What is the difference between Fundamental Research & Applied
Research?
 Describe all types of research with example?
 Discuss the purpose/ Important of Exploratory Research?
 What is the differences Between Exploratory & Explanatory
Research?
 What is the important & the use of correlation research related
with Accounting & Finance?
 What is the important of predictive researched related with
accounting & finance?
 Discuss the Versus ,Important and Implementation of
Qualitative, Quantitative & Mixed Research?

Chapter Three:
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Chapter Three:
Define Research Problem and
Guidelines to Prepare a Research
Proposal
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1-49 Chapter Three: ….
3.1.Formulation of the Research problem related with Accounting & Finance
3.1.1 What is research problem
 A research problem helps you formulate that sequences.
 It also help you avoid unnecessary steps during research,
 It is the preliminary step in conducting accounting &
finance research
 It helps you understand the research procedure in a
better matter
 The research question must be specified precisely, and in
a manner which details the motivation for its study. It
must be a problem worth studying,
 it provides the opportunity of ‘selling’ an idea and of
setting out what the paper does clearly so that the key
points are not buried in a mass of trivia 49
1-50 3.1.Formulation of the Research problem related with Accounting & Finance
3.1.2.Defining and Formulation of the Research Problem

 The first step happens to be identifying and properly
defining a research problem.
 The researcher first must find any social, economic, business
problem and formulate it into research problem.
 The best way of understanding a problem is to discuss it
with friends/colleagues or those having some
experience in the matter.
 Problem formulation from the researcher point of view
represents translating the managers, social and other
problems in to a research problem.
 Defining the research problem is crucial and very
difficult part of a research process. 50
3.1.Formulation
1-51 of the Research problem related with Accounting & Finance …
3.1.2. Defining and Formulation of the Research Problem…
 It is the most difficult part of the research study because it
requires a clear outline of cause and effect relationships. It is
commonly difficult to distinguish effect of a problem from the
cause of the problem.
 A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to find answers to question such as
 What kind of data and information are relevant and needed
to be studied?
 What relationship is to be explored among variables?
 What technique has to be used to collect and analyze data?
And so forth
Therefore, defining a research problem properly is a
prerequisite for any study and a very important step. Even it
3.1.Formulation
1-52 of the Research problem related with Accounting & Finance….
3.1.3 Techniques involved in defining a problem
The research problem should be defined in a systematic
manner. The technique involved in defining a research
problem follows a number of steps, which include:
i.Statement of problem in a general way
it is advisable to do some field observation and / or
preliminary survey (pilot survey)
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem
The best way of understanding the problem is:
To discuss with those who first raised the problem in order
to know how the problem originally come in view.
To discuss it with those who have a good knowledge of
the problem concerned or similar other problem
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3.1.Formulation
3.1.3 Techniques involved in defining a problem …
iii. Survey the available literature
Theory has the following role in overall research studies:
Theory provides patterns of the interpretation of data
It links on study with the other
It provides frameworks within which concepts and variables acquire special
significance.
It allows to interpret the large meaning of our findings for ourselves and others
Reports and records and other literature in the concerned area
Rearview research works undertaken on related problem.
•Generally, survey of literature will enable researcher to know
If there are certain gap in the theory
Whether the existing theory applicable to the problem and consistent with each
other.
Whether the findings of the research do or do not follow a pattern consistent with
the theoretical expectation.
Study on a related problem is also useful for indicating the type of difficulty that
may be encountered in the present study.
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3.1.Formulation
3.1.3 Techniques involved in defining a problem…
iv. Developing ideas through discussion
Various new ideas can be discovered and developed through it.
The researcher should discuss his problem with colleagues and
others who have enough experience in the same area.
Rephrasing the research problem (Reformulation of the
problem)
Finally, the researcher at this stage should be able to
reformulate the problem that has been stated in broad and
general way in to working proposition.
That is, problem should be expressed as:
•a relationship between two or more variable
•the problem should be stated either in question form
or hypothesis form
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3.1.Formulation
v. Rephrasing the research problem (Reformulation of the
problem)
Finally, the researcher at this stage should be able to
reformulate the problem that has been stated in broad
and general way in to working proposition. The
researcher should narrow and break down the problem into
its components variables and relationships. That is, problem
should be expressed as:
a relationship between two or more variable
 the problem should be stated either in question form or
hypothesis form
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3.1.Formulation
v. Rephrasing the research problem (Reformulation of the
problem)…..
Question form is appropriate mostly when the research is descriptive
in nature. What important is that when a researcher state the
problem in question form the formulated problem should be free
from ambiguity and the relationship among variables should be
clearly expressed. Examples
Does a relationship exist between income level of university
students and score on their exams?
Is there a relationship between employees' age and their
productivity?
 Does a relationship exist between the men circumcision and
sensitivity to HIV virus?
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3.1.Formulation
v. Rephrasing the research problem (Reformulation of the problem)….
In above examples, the study‘s main elements are identified in
reasonably clear fashion. The following points must be considered
while redefining the research problem:
Technical terms and words or phrased, with special meanings
used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly defined.
A straightforward statements of the value of the investigation, i.e.,
the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided
The suitability of the time and the sources of data available must
also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining the
research problem. 57
3.1.Formulation
3.1.4 .Evaluation of the Research Problem ….
In short, the research problem should be evaluated in
terms of the following criteria.
•Is the problem researchable?
•Is the problem new?
•Is the problem significant?
•Is the problem feasible?
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1-59 3.2. Research Questions, Research Objectives, and Hypothesis Formulation
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Develop the Hypothesis
 Hypothesis proposes a relationship between
two or more variables
 Establishing a hypothesis should follow rules
like:
 The variables must be clearly specified and
measurable by some techniques we know
 The relationship between them must be stated
precisely.
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Importance of Hypothesis
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following
advantages
Represents specific objective, which determine the
nature of the data needed to test the proposition
Offer basis for selecting the sample, the research
procedure, and the statistical analysis needed.
Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it
from becoming too broad
Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the
study.
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Criteria of usable hypotheses

Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully
formulated. There are several criteria used to evaluate
hypothesis. These include the following.
Hypotheses should be clearly and precisely formulated
Hypotheses should be formulated in such way that, they can be
tested or verified (should be testable)
Hypothesis should state explicitly the expected relationship
between variables
Hypotheses should be limited in scope. Hypotheses of global
significance are not usable as they are not specific and simple for
testing and drawing conclusions.
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Criteria of usable hypotheses Cont’d..

Hypotheses can be useful if and only if they are carefully
formulated. There are several criteria used to evaluate
hypothesis. These include the following.
Hypotheses should be consistent with the known facts. In
other words, hypotheses should be grounded in a well-
established facts, theories, or laws.
Hypotheses should be stated as much as possible in simple
terms.
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Hypothesis Formulation in Quantitative Methods

A variable refers to a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an
organization that can be measured or observed and that varies among
the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2007).
Independent variables are those that (probably) cause,
influence, or affect outcomes. They are also called treatment,
manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables.
Dependent variables are those that depend on the
independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of
the influence of the independent variables. Other names for
dependent variables are criterion, outcome, and effect
variables.
•
Null and Alternative Hypothesis

The hypotheses will normally be stated in null or alternative
forms, and most reviewers prefer the null hypothesis form.
The null hypothesis (H0) postulates the existence of no
relationship between the variables of interest; we then
attempt to assemble sufficient evidence to suggest that,
statistically, the null hypothesis is not a reasonable
assumption. If we have no prior evidence to suggest a
direction of causality, then we have no alternative but to
adopt a null hypothesis format
06/19/24 65
Null and Alternative Hypothesis Cont’d

The alternative hypothesis (H1) postulates the existence of a directed (often causal)
relationship, and our assembled evidence must show that findings are inconsistent
with no significant relationship (the null position).
In conducting tests of hypotheses we are faced with the possibility of making two
errors:
Type 1 error – the rejection of a true null hypothesis
Type 2 error – the acceptance of a false null hypothesis.
In a legal scenario, the conviction of an innocent man would constitute a Type 1
error, while freeing a guilty man would provide a Type 2 error. In a bankruptcy
prediction environment, the misclassification of a failed company as healthy would
constitute a Type 1 error, while the classification of a healthy company as a failed one
would constitute a Type 2 error.
It is generally more important to reduce the probability of Type 1 errors (since they
are seen as more serious or more expensive) so that hypothesis testing places more
emphasis on Type 1 rather than Type 2 errors.
06/19/24 66
Criteria of usable hypotheses Cont’d..

Some examples of Hypothesis,
Null Hypothesis:
There is a significant effect between firm‘s tangibility and leverage of insurance
companies in Ethiopia,
Alternative Hypothesis:
There is no significant effect between firm‘s tangibility and leverage of insurance
Null Hypothesis:
•There is a significant effect between firm‘s size and leverage of insurance companies
in Ethiopia,
Alternative Hypothesis:
•There is no significant effect between firm‘s size and leverage of insurance


1-70
3.3. Definition of Research Proposal
a research proposal can be defined as a written document
requesting both authorization and funds to undertake a
specific research project
It always includes a statement explaining the purpose of
the study or a definition of the problem.
It systematically outlines the particular research
methodology and details the process that will be utilized at
each stage of the research process
In research proposal:
What information will be required?
What research procedures will be implemented? Will be
clearly specified so that others may understand their exact
implications.
06/19/24 70
The purpose of research proposal regarding with Accounting &
Finance
The research proposal has the following purposes.

It serves as a basis for determining the feasibility of the
research project.
It provides a systematic plan of procedure for the
researcher to follow.
It gives the research supervisor a basis for guiding the
researcher while conducting the study.
It reduces the probability of costly mistake.
06/19/24 71
General Format and Elements of Proposal
The major components (elements) of a scientific research proposal
1)Title
2)Abstract
3)Introduction (background and justification),
4)Statement of the problem
5)Basic Research Questions
6)Objective of the study
7)Significant of the study
8)Scope of the study
9)Organization of the study
10)Literature review
11)Research Design and Methodology
12)Work plan (time budget)
13)Cost budget
14)References
15)Appendix
06/19/24 72
1-73 General Format and Elements of Proposal Cont’d..
The major components (elements) of a scientific research proposal..
1)Title
The title should be as explicit as possible and transparent
It should be clear and short
It should capture and reflect the content of the proposal. It should
enable the readers to understand the concepts of the study Try to get
the title down to one line or two
2) Abstract
Abstract should be concise, informative and should provide brief
information about the whole problem to be investigated
The abstract of a proposal should contain the following points
Title or topic of the research
Statement of the problem and objective
Methodology of investigation
Expected result (tentative only if a researcher starts with a formulated
06/19/24 73
hypothesis)
The major components (elements) of a scientific research proposal..
3) Introduction (background and justification)

This section in research proposal should give the general
background of the study and the need for undertaking the
study. It reviews the previous work to reveal what is
known of the subject.
Some question to be addressed in this part may include:
What are current and previous studies that have been made
on the issues to be studied?
What is the present gap in knowledge and current
trend?
What makes worth studying?
Why has the problem not been solved yet?
What do we intend to fill the gap or solve the problem?
06/19/24 74
4) Statement of the problem

A problem might be defined as the
issue that exists in the literature,
theory, or practice that leads to a
need for the study.
As a prospective researcher you
should think on what caused the need
to do the research.
Effective problem statements
answer the research question:
06/19/24
“Why does this research need to be 75
4) Statement of the problem
SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
Personal experiences of the investigator
Researchers suggest some problems in their research
reports
The new innovations, technological changes
The government, consultant,
Review of the related literature. Etc….
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM
Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.
Importance for the field represented and implementation.
Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive.
Training and personal qualifications.
Availability of data and method.
Special equipment and working conditions
Approachability of the sample.
06/19/24
Sponsorship and administrative cooperation. 76
4) Statement of the problem…..
We can evaluate the research problem based on the
following question
Is the problem really important?
Is the problem interesting to others?
Is the chosen problem a real problem?
Does the problem display originality and creativeness?
Am I really concerned with finding the solution?
Am I able to state hypotheses from the problem in a testable form?
Will I learn something new from this problem?
Do I understand the relationship of this specific problem to the
broader problem area?
Will be able to select a sample from which I can generalize to some
population?
Will some other intelligent person be able to replicate the study?
Will my proposed data-gathering instruments actually give the
Information which I want?
Is the study, including the application of its results, practical? The
06/19/24
number of affirmative answers should be required for a suitable 77
problem.
5) Research Questions
• One of the key criteria of your research
success will be whether you have a set of
clear conclusions drawn from the data you
have collected. The extent to which you can
do that will be determined largely by the
clarity with which you have posed your initial
research questions
• The research question is driven from the
statement of the problem
06/19/24 78
5) Research Questions…..
Statement of the problem and their derived research questions
Statement of the problem Basic Research Questions
1) Internal Financial Report and 1) What is the relationship
AIS has no any relationship in between internal financial
the company control and AIS in the
2) Internal Auditor is highly organization?
dependent with the bank 2) Is the Bank Auditor is
manager dependent or independent?
3) The Budget Utilization & 3) What looks like Budget
Implementation of the Utilization & Implementation
organization was not properly of the organization?
monitored & Evaluated
4) ETC
06/19/24 79
6) Objectives
The research objectives should be:
Closely related to the research question
Covering all aspects of the problem
Ordered in a logical sequence
 Stated in action verbs that could be
evaluated e.g. to describe, to identify, to
measure, to compare …
No perception verbs like to see, to
understand …
Mutually exclusive, with no repetitions or
06/19/24
overlaps 80
6) Objectives
the proposal can indicate what is
expected to occur and why, suggest the
variables that determine a relationship,
or provide an explanation for a
phenomenon that has been observed,
which strengthens the proposal and
research agenda
General Objectives( Derived from the topic)
Specific Objectives (Derived from Research
question)
06/19/24 The specific objective and the research
81
Examples of research questions as research S.objectives
Specific objectives
Research questions
1) What is the relationship 1) To identify the relationship
between internal financial between internal financial
control and AIS? control and AIS
2) What is the contribution of 2) To point out the contribution of
AIS in the internal control
AIS in the control structure?
structure
3) What type of inventory
3) To assess the method of
system is adopted by the
inventory management system
company?
used by the factory.
4) What looks like the 4) To assess the performance of
performance of budgeting as budgeting and budget
a controlling system of the controlling system of the factory
factory?
5) Etc..............
5) 06/19/24
Etc....... 82
7. Significance /Value of the Research

• In this section stakeholders of the research to
be benefited along with how it will benefit
them will be explained. Especially for large
scale commissioned research proposals the
importance/benefits of the study section is
considered as justification to get fund.
06/19/24 83
7. Significance /Value of the Research……..

Benefit of the study/value of the Study (Who may
use the findings)..................
The society/the community/the country.
Policy makers.
User organizations.
The researcher himself/herself.
Other researchers uses as reference.
06/19/24 84
8. Scope of the study
Scope provides the boundary or framework of the study.
Theoretical Scope: the boundary of the theory that will be
covered and not covered by the research.
Methodological Scope: A research will not use all types of
the research designs, all types of data analyzing tools. Hence,
the researcher needs to justify how he/she use the selected
methodologies. This determination of the research
methodologies that will be used in the research.
Geographical Scope: it is the specification the
geographical location that the research will cover.
06/19/24 85
8. Scope of the study
Scope provides the boundary or framework of the study.
Theoretical Scope: the boundary of the theory that will be
covered and not covered by the research.
Methodological Scope: A research will not use all types of
the research designs, all types of data analyzing tools. Hence,
the researcher needs to justify how he/she use the selected
methodologies. This determination of the research
methodologies that will be used in the research.
Geographical Scope: it is the specification the
geographical location that the research will cover.
06/19/24 86
9. Organization of the study
• Organization of the Study/ Chapterization of
the Study: The outline of the research in
brief should be stated in this section.
06/19/24 87
10. Literature Review
review for research could take place in three stages of the research
project. These include the following
1) At the beginning of the research: the objective here is
To check what other research has been done
To focus your idea, and
To explore the context for your project
2) During your research: with the objectives of
 keeping your interest and up to date with development
 helping you better understand the method you are using and the field you
are researching and,
 serving as a source of data
3) After your research, with the objectives of
seeing what impact you own work has had, and
helping
06/19/24 you develop ideas for further research project 88
11. Research Methodology

Research methodology is a way to systematically
solve the research problem. It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
 In it we study the various steps that are generally
adopted by a researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them.
06/19/24 89
11. Research Methodology cont’d…

• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only
the research methods/techniques but also the
methodology.
• Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate
the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are
relevant and which are not, and what would they
mean and indicate and why.
06/19/24 90

11.1. The Research Approach:
• The research approach to be adopted, in
broad terms classified as exploratory,
descriptive or causal, should be specified.
Beyond such a broad classification should be
details of the individual techniques that will
be adopted and how they will unfold and
connect to each other.
06/19/24 91

11.2. Sources of Data...
• Sources of data: the sources of data should be
clearly stated. It could be either primary sources of
data or secondary sources of data or both.
06/19/24 92
11.3. Data Collection Method:

• Fieldwork/data collection methods: The
proposal should discuss how the data will be
collected and who will collect it. If the
fieldwork is to be subcontracted to another
supplier, this should be stated. Control
mechanisms to ensure the quality of data
collected should be described.
06/19/24 93
11.4. Sampling Technique

• Sampling Techniques: the detail sampling
methods and techniques should be included in the
methodology part of the research proposal.
06/19/24 94

11.5. Data Analysis Method...
• Data analysis methods: This should describe the kind of
data analysis that will be conducted, e.g. content
analysis, simple cross-tabulations, univariate analysis
or multivariate analysis. If software packages are to be
used in these analyses, they should be specified, as they
will be indicative of the potential analyses that can be
conducted. There should be further description of the
extent to which the results will be interpreted in light of
the set marketing objectives, beyond the specified
analysis techniques.
06/19/24 95

11.6. Model Specification (if any).....
• The model of your research should be
specified if your concern is to test the
hypotheses.
• Identify the different types of variables and be
clear how you are going to measure and be
used in the selected statistical tool.
06/19/24 96
12. Work Plan or Time schedule...

• Time Schedule: A research project has a beginning and an ending
time. During this project period, the research requires both material
and human resource deployment. Preferably a research project has
to be modularized into major milestones.
• For example,
 1st a pilot study can be the first milestone that could help you
to complete your research proposal.
 2nd Completion of a research proposal can be taken as the
second milestone.
 3rd ,You might want to test your questionnaire so as to revise it
before it is administered. Hence, questionnaire testing is the
third milestone. In general, a research process may be classified
into component milestones and each milestone may have
specific activities. Time duration has to be assigned to each of
the activities.
06/19/24 97
12. Work Plan or Time schedule Sample...
06/19/24 98
13. Cost Budget/Financial Proposal
• Financial Proposal: The cost of the project broken down by phases
should be presented. the budget section of a proposal should be
presented in accordance to the budget format provided by the
sponsor.
Most proposals put together with the expectation that funding will be
necessary and an itemized list of items needed to carry out the
methodology is listed in some detail. Personal needs, including
the principal researcher’s time are included. These are items like:
 Field expenses for data collection
 Pay for consultants where they are necessary
 Travel and all such items needed to be detailed
 A sum of money for contingencies
 A carefully developed budget reflects the seriousness of the
proposal
06/19/24
and the degree to which it is a realistic assessment of 99
what is needed.
13. Cost Budget/Financial Proposal (Sample)
06/19/24 100
14. Reference
• Reference: Referenced books, journals magazines and other documents
should be listed under reference. There are different referencing
systems. Some of these are APA (American Psychological Association)
referencing style; Harvard University’s referencing style etc. You can use
any of referencing style that you thought better to use. However, there
should be consistency. Once you started to use APA referencing style or
Harvard University referencing style, you need to finish in the same
manner.
• Example:
06/19/24 101
1-102 14. Reference (Example )
Material Type
In-Text Citation Reference List
Book and eBook
Book: Single author (Kothari ,2004) Kothari (2004), Research Methodology ,Methods and
Techniques(2nd Edition), new age international (p)
limited, publishers
Book and eBook
Book : more than 2 authors First citation: (Brealey, R.A. Brealey, R.A. and Myers, S.C. (2003), Principles of
and Myers, S.C. , 2003) corporate finance, (7th ed.), The McGraw−Hill
Subsequent citations: Companies.
(Brealey et al., 2003)
Journal Articles
Journal article in print: 2 or Booth, L Aivazian, V Demirguc-Kunt, V and
more authors (Booth, et al., 2001) Maksimovic, V (2001), Capital structures in
developing countries, Journal of Finance, vol. 56,
No. 1, 87– 130
Conference Proceedings
Paper in conference (Balakrishnan, 2006) Balakrishnan, R. (2006, March). Why aren't we using
proceedings online: 3D user interfaces, and will we ever? Paper
Electronic database presented at the IEEE Symposium on 3D User
Interfaces. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/vr.2006.148
06/19/24 102
1-103 14. Reference (Example cont’d… )
Material Type
Report In-Text Citation Reference List
National Bank (NBE, 2015/2016) NBE. (2015/16), Annual

of Ethiopia Report 2015/16, Addis Ababa,
Report Ethiopia
Government (Western Australia. Western Australia. Department
reports Department of Health of Health Nursing and
Nursing and Midwifery Midwifery Office. (2013).
Office, 2013). Aboriginal Nursing and
Midwifery Strategic Plan
2011-2015. Retrieved from
http://www.nursing.health.wa.
gov.au/projects/
06/19/24 103
1-104
Chapter Four:
Review of Literature
06/19/24 104
1-105 Chapter Four -Literature Review….
The purpose of a literature review
is to gain an understanding of the existing
research and debates relevant to a particular
topic or area Accounting & Finance, and to
present that knowledge in the form of a written
report.
Conducting a literature review helps us
build our knowledge in field of Accounting &
Finance.
The purpose of a literature review
Chapter Four -Literature Review Cont’d
1-107
Types of literature review

Chapter Four -Literature Review Cont’d.
1-108
How to Conduct a Review of literature

How to Conduct a Review of literature………..
In any scientific research, theoretical and
conceptual frameworks share five functions
(1) To build a foundation
(2) To demonstrate how a study advances
knowledge
(3) To conceptualize the study
(4) To assess research design and instrumentation
(5) To provide a reference point for interpretation
of findings (Merriam & Simpson, 2000).
• All five functions are not necessarily fulfilled by the review or
framework in each manuscript, but often they are. Theory: Theories
are constructed in order to explain, predict, and master phenomena
(e.g., relationships, events, behavior).
Developing Conceptual Framework
Formulating a Conceptual Framework: How?
1. Cite your conceptual framework.
2. Identify your variables.
3. Identify independent, dependent, and intervening variables.
4. Illustrate the theoretical framework by means of a diagram.
NB. Once the conceptual framework has been determined, the next step for the
researcher is to determine what research methods to employ to best answer the
research question through the proposed framework.
Differences between Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks
Scope
Conceptual framework is founded on the theoretical framework, which lies on a much broader scale
of resolution.
Generality-Specificity
 Theoretical framework provides a general representation of relationships between things in a
given phenomenon.
 The conceptual framework, on the other hand, embodies the specific direction by which the
research will have to be undertaken.
 That is, the conceptual framework describes the relationship between specific variables identified in
the study.
1-113 Chapter Four -Literature Review
Modeling the relationship
Our fundamental relationship is an association between two variables
of interest, with the relationship subject to influence by another group
of variables
At this stage we have only an ‘association’; we cannot postulate a

causal direction without some underpinning theory.
Modeling the relationship Cont’d..
 In the above Figure, would normally be associated with dependence

on at least four financial variables (measuring profitability, risk,
liquidity and working capital) with the effect moderated by other
company-specific characteristics.
 Even so, a further model would be needed to explain the ‘timing’ of
failure
Validity Concern
 External validity requires that research findings have implications for other sites
(companies and countries) and people at different time periods.
 Unfortunately, the highest levels of internal validity are associated with artificial
conditions (the findings may be restricted to the time, cases, participants and
location of the research setting).
 Where we have solved our variable definition and control methods, we still
have to make an informed choice as to the most appropriate research method
to be employed. These fall into five broad categories:
 scientific reasoning and/or model building;
 historical research using archival data and/or secondary sources;
 case studies requiring extensive exploration in the field;
 surveys, often involving large-scale sampling, though lacking control
and richness of outcome; and
 experiments, either in the field or, more usually, in laboratory-type
conditions.
1-116
CHAPTER Five
Research Process in
Detail
06/19/24 116
1-117 5.1 Research Design
5.1.1 Meaning of Research Design
A research design is a general plan or strategy for
conducting a research study to examine specific testable
research questions of interest.
The nature of the research questions and hypotheses, the
variables involved, the sample of participants, the
research settings, the data collection methods, and the
data analysis methods are factors that contribute to the
selection of the appropriate research design.
 Thus, a research design is the structure, or the
blueprint, of research that guides the process of research
from the formulation of the research questions and
hypotheses to reporting the research findings.
1-118 5.1 Research Design ( Its Classification )
1-119 5.1 Research Design Cont’d..
5.1.2 Classification(types) of research Design
The sake of simplicity research designs can be
classified into one of three broad categories
based on the nature of research, purpose of
research, research questions, sample selection,
data collection methods, and data analysis
techniques:
(1) Quantitative research designs,
(2) Qualitative research designs, and
(3) Mixed-research designs.
5.1.2.1 Quantitative Research Design
Quantitative research is a deductive theory-based research
process that focuses primarily on testing theories and
specific research hypotheses that consider finding
differences and relationships using numeric data and
statistical methods to make specific conclusions about the
phenomena. Quantitative research designs can be classified
into one of four broad research design categories based on
the strength of the research design‘s experimental control:
(1) True experimental research designs,
(2) Quasi-experimental research designs,
(3) Pre-experimental research designs, and
(4) Non-experimental research designs.
Quantitative Research Design ….
The true experiment is a type of research design where:
The researcher deliberately manipulates one or more
independent variables (also called experimental
variable or treatment conditions),
Randomly assigns individuals or objects to the
experimental conditions Achieved (e.g., experimental or
control groups) and controls other environmental and
extraneous variables, and
Measures the effect of the independent variable on
one or more dependent variables (experimental
outcome).
It is important to emphasize that the
experimental research design, if well conducted,
is the most conclusive and powerful of all the
research designs and the only research design
that tests research questions and hypotheses
to establish cause–effect relationships. For this
reason, it is sometimes called the Golden
Design.‘‘
(2) Quasi-Experimental Research Designs
• A quasi-experiment will still use an experimental
group(s) and a control group, but the researcher will
not randomly assign participants to each group,
perhaps because participants are only available in
pre-formed groups (e.g. existing work groups)
• is used in situations where it is not feasible or
practical to use a true experimental design because
the individual subjects are already in intact groups
(e.g., organizations, departments, classrooms, schools,
institutions).
• Quasi-experimental design involves selecting groups,
upon which a variable is tested, without any random
pre-selection processes.
• For example, to perform an educational experiment, a
class might be arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection
or by seating arrangement.
• Types of quasi- experimental designs include
1)nonequivalent control group designs, 2) longitudinal
research designs, and 3) multi- level research designs.
2.1 Non-equivalent Control Group Design
The nonequivalent control group design involves assignment of
intact nonequivalent groups (e.g., classrooms, schools,
departments, and organizations) to experimental conditions
(experimental and control groups). Thus, the intact groups are assigned
to the treatment conditions and not the individual subjects, as was the
case in the true experimental designs .
For example, in a study of the effects of a new curriculum of
students‘ knowledge of science and attitudes toward science, some
classrooms would be assigned to receive the new curriculum and others
would not. Toward the end of the school year, all students are measured
on their science knowledge and attitudes toward science.
2.2. Longitudinal Research Designs
Longitudinal, repeated-measures,
or time-series research designs
involve repeated measurement or
observation on the same
individuals at several points over a period.
2.3.Multi-Level Research Designs
Multi-level or hierarchical research designs
involve the nesting of individuals (micro-level units)
within organizations (macro-level units) and
having explanatory independent variables
characterizing and describing both levels.
For example, in a two-level design, the emphasis is
on how to model the effects of explanatory
variables (predictors) at one level on the
relationships occurring at another level
(3) Pre-Experimental Research Designs
Pre-experimental research designs are simple
designs with no control groups. These designs
are questionable because they lack control and
thus should be used for exploratory or
preliminary examination of research
problems. It can be classified in to two types:
3.1. One-Group Posttest Experimental Design
3.2. One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
(4) Non-experimental Research Designs
Non-experimental or descriptive
research designs aim to answer
research questions about the current
state of affairs, identify factors and
relationships among them, and create a
detailed quantitative description of
phenomena
The following are short descriptions of some of these designs
Includes:
I.Non-experimental Survey Research
II.Correlation Research,
III.Causal-Comparative Research and
IV.Meta-Analysis Research
4.1. Non-experimental Survey Research
Survey research is a systematic research method for
collecting data from a representative sample of individuals
using instruments composed of closed-ended and/or open-
ended questions, observations, and interviews.
4.1. Non-experimental Survey Research…
•The key goal of non-experimental survey research is
to collect data and describe the behaviors,
thoughts, and attitudes of a representative sample
of individuals at a given point in time and place.
•It uses as mixed research Design
•For example, it can be used to collect data for
correlation research studies, experimental
studies, and quasi-experimental studies.
4.2. Correlation Research
The correlation coefficient range is between -1 and +1,
which is used to measure strength and degree of linear
relationship between two variables.
A negative correlation coefficient implies the existence of
a perfect negative linear relationship between the two
variables,
where as a positive one indicates a perfect positive linear
association and
A zero correlation coefficient indicates the absence of any
linear relationship between two variables.
4.2. Correlation Research
Correlation research is a type of descriptive
non-experimental research because it
describes and assesses the magnitude and
degree of an existing relationship between two
or more continuous quantitative variables
with interval or ratio types of measurements or
discrete variables with ordinal or nominal type
of measurements.
4.3 Causal-Comparative Research
it describes the state of existing differences among groups
of individuals or objects as they existed at a given time and
place and attempts to determine the possible causes or reasons
for the existing differences.
the basic causal-comparative approach starts with selecting
two or more groups with existing differences and comparing
them on an outcome (dependent) variable. .
In addition, it attempts to examine and explain the
possible causes of the existing differences between
the groups.
4.3 Causal-Comparative Research ….
for example, studying the differences between boys and girls on
math achievement. In this causal-comparative study, the researcher
needs to analyze the collected data using t-test for testing the research
hypothesis that there are differences between the two independent
sample means.
Some other causal-comparative research designs involve
more than two groups, for example, studying differences
between white, black, and Hispanic students on math
achievement. In this study, the researcher needs to use
analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the data.
4.4 Meta-Analysis Research
The meta-analysis design is used to
quantitatively and systematically
summarize and synthesize the research
results and findings from a collection of
primary studies that address and test the
same research question.
4.4 Meta-Analysis Research….
Meta-analytic research methods have established
five major general stages that guide Meta
analysts in their systematic quantitative review.
These stages include:
(1) Formulating research problems,
(2) Collecting primary research studies,
(3) Evaluating primary studies,
(4) Analyzing and modeling the Meta analytic data, and
(5) Interpreting and presenting the meta-analytic results.
Generally, the key goals of meta-analysis methods
are to:
a)Produce quantitative summary measures of the
effect sizes,
b)Assess the heterogeneity (variation) among the
effect sizes, and
c)Model and explain the heterogeneity between the
effect sizes using known study and sample
characteristics as exploratory variables in the
specified meta-analytic regression model. .
2.Qualitative Research Design
 Qualitative research is inductive(truth) and context-
specific research that focuses on observing and
describing a specific phenomenon, behavior, opinions,
and events that exist to generate new research hypotheses
and theories.
 The goals of qualitative research are to provide a
detailed narrative description and holistic
interpretation that captures the richness and complexity
of behaviors, experiences, and events in natural settings.
 from the specific phenomena to general conclusions and
theories about the phenomena based on data collected by
observations, documents, physical artifacts, interviews,
and focus groups.
2.Qualitatative Research Design are …..
1. Cased Study
Case study is an in-depth examination and intensive description of a
single individual, group, and organization based on collected
information from a variety of sources, such as observations,
interviews, documents, participant observation, and archival
records. The goal of the case study is to provide a detailed and
comprehensive description, in narrative form, of the case being
studied.
2. Ethnographic Research:
Ethnographic research is a qualitative research design that is used for
studying social groups, cultures, and human interactions in natural
cultural and social settings. The goal of the ethnographic study is to
provide a detailed, in-depth, and holistic narrative description of the
group and the cultural setting being studied.
3. Phenomenological Research (and explain how an
individual or a group of individuals experience a particular
phenomenon from the individual‘s or individuals‘ own
perspective(s).
The primary method of data collection used in
phenomenology is in-depth interviews of individuals who
have experienced the phenomenon.
4. Action Research ( Immediate Solution )
action research is a study conducted by educational and
organizational practitioners to help them to develop
alternative reflective practices that lead to positive changes
within their educational and organizational settings.
5.Historical Research
Historical research is a systematic process for searching, exploring,
summarizing, and reporting past information and events using primary
and secondary sources of historical data to gain understanding of
historical events, issues, and policies. Primary sources of historical data
are the original firsthand artifacts, documents, observations, oral
presentations, diaries, photographs, and audio-visual recordings of past
events
6. Grounded Research (Develop theory )
It is used for generating and developing theories and explanations based
on systematically collected qualitative data. The data collection process
in grounded theory research is usually an ongoing iterative process that
starts with collecting and analyzing qualitative data that leads to
tentative theory development.
3. Mixed-Methods Research Designs
 Mixed-methods research designs involve research studies that
employ both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies to
address the proposed research questions
 the mixed-methods research designs can be classified into three
types:
1) exploratory,
2) explanatory, and
3)
3.1triangulation
Exploratory Mixed-Methods Research Designs
the researcher first conceptualizes a qualitative research study. Second,
the researcher collects and analyzes the qualitative data. Third, the
researcher uses the findings from the qualitative data analysis to
conceptualize a quantitative research study. Finally, the researcher
collects and analyzes the quantitative data to validate the qualitative
findings.
3. Mixed-Methods Research Designs….
3.2 Explanatory Mixed-Methods Research Designs
the researcher first conceptualizes a quantitative research study.
Second, the researcher collects and analyzes the quantitative data.
Third, the researcher conceptualizes a qualitative research study.
Finally, the researcher collects and analyzes the collected qualitative
data to clarify and enhance the quantitative research findings.
3.3 Triangulation Mixed-Methods Research Designs
the researcher simultaneously conceptualizes quantitative and
qualitative research studies. Then, the researcher simultaneously
collects and analyzes both quantitative and qualitative data. Finally,
the researcher uses the results from the quantitative and qualitative
studies to validate findings from both studies
5.2. Sampling Techniques & Sampling size
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Determination
 Sampling is the selection of a given number of units of
analysis (people, households, firms, etc.), called cases,
from a population of interest.
 Generally, the sample size (n) is chosen in order to
reproduce, on a small scale, some characteristics of the
whole population or target population (N).
Mostly popular formula is=> n=N/(1+N(e^2)), where e is
sampling error
 Sampling is a key issue in social research designs. The
advantages of sampling are evident:
 Feasibility of the research,
 lower costs, economy of time, and
 Better organization of the work
5.2. Sampling Techniques & Sampling size
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Determination Cont’d..
 The Need for sampling
For some research questions it is possible to collect data from
an entire population as it is of a manageable size. However,
you should not assume that a census would necessarily
provide more useful results than collecting data from a
sample that represents the entire population. Sampling
provides a valid alternative to a census when:
 it would be impracticable for you to survey the entire
population;
your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the
entire population;
 your time constraints prevent you from surveying the
entire population.
5.2.
1-147 Sampling Techniques & Sampling size Determination Cont’d..
 Before we defining the sampling size , 1st we know about the population, target
population & sample size based on the following figure
1-148
Sampling Size Determinations
148
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Types of sampling Design
Sampling
Methods
Probability Non-
Samples probability
Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball
Simple
Cluster Judgment Quota
Random
1. Probability Sampling Methods
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1.1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest form of random sampling is called
simple random sampling.
All elements of the population has
an equal chance of being selected.
Uses a table of random numbers, a computer
random number generator, or a lottery method to
select the sample.
 It should be used with a homogeneous
population
150
1. Probability Sampling Methods..
1-151
1.1. Simple Random Sampling…

For example, if we have to select a sample of
300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then
we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000
items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another
method of random sampling. To select the sample,
each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000.
Then, 300 five digits random numbers are selected
from the table.
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Simple random sampling
152
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1.2. Systematic Sampling

 An initial starting point is selected by a
random process, and then every nth number
on the list is selected. Sampling fraction- Ratio
between sample size and population size.
 n=sampling interval
 The number of population elements

between the units selected for the sample
 Error: periodicity- the original list has a
systematic pattern
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1.2. Steps in systematic sampling...
1. Identify and define the population.

2. Determine the desired sample size.
3. Obtain a list of the population.
4. Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of
the population by the desired sample size.
5. Start at some random place in the population list.
Close you eyes and point your finger to a name.
6. Starting at that point, take every Kth name on the list
until the desired sample size is reached.
7. If the end of the list is reached before the desired
154
sample is reached, go back to the top of the list.
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1.2. Systematic sampling….
155
1.3. Stratified Sampling
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 Sub-samples are randomly drawn

from samples within different
strata(subgroups/Division/section/ that
are more or less equal on some
characteristic
 Why strata?
 Can reduce random error

 Moreaccurately reflect the population
by more proportional representation
156
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1.3. Steps in stratified sampling...

3. Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for
which you want to guarantee appropriate, equal
representation.
4. Classify all members of the population as members
of one identified subgroup.
5. Randomly select, using a table of random numbers)
an “appropriate” number of individuals from each
of the subgroups, appropriate meaning an equal
number of individuals
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1.3. Steps in stratified sampling...
 Advantages
 Assures representation of all groups in
sample population needed
 Characteristics of each stratum can be
estimated and comparisons made
 Reduces variability from systematic
 Disadvantages
 Requires accurate information on
proportions of each stratum
 Stratified lists costly to prepare
158
1.4. Cluster Sampling
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 Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each other

i.e. crowding together in the same area or neighborhood
 The primary sampling unit is not the
individual element, but a large cluster of
elements. Either the cluster is randomly
selected or the elements within are
randomly selected.
 Why? Frequently used when no list of population
available or because of cost
 Ask: is the cluster as heterogeneous as the
population? Can we assume it is representative?
159
1.4. Cluster Sampling…
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 Cluster Sampling example

 You are asked to create a sample of all
Management students who are working in AAU
during the summer term
 There is no such list available
 Using stratified sampling, compile a list of

businesses in AAU to identify clusters
 Individual workers within these clusters are
selected to take part in study
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 Typesof Cluster Samples

Area sample:
 Primary sampling unit is a geographical area
Multistage area sample:
 Involves a combination of two or more types
of probability sampling techniques.
Typically, progressively smaller
geographical areas are randomly selected in
a series of steps
161
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Section 1 Section 2
Section 3
Section 5
Section 4
162
1.4. Steps in Cluster Sampling…
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3. Identify and define a logical cluster.
4. List all clusters (or obtain a list) that make up the
population of clusters.
5. Estimate the average number of population members per
cluster.
6. Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster.
7. Randomly select the needed number of clusters by using a
table of random numbers.
8. Include in your study all population members in each
selected cluster. 163
1.4. Steps in Cluster Sampling…
1-164
 Advantages
 Low cost/high frequency of use
 Requires list of all clusters, but only of individuals
within chosen clusters
 Can estimate characteristics of both cluster and
population
 For multistage, has strengths of used methods
 Disadvantages
 Larger error for comparable size than other probability
methods
 Multistage very expensive and validity depends on
other methods used 164
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2. Non-probability sampling
• Nonprobability sampling is a sampling technique in
which some units of the population have zero
chance of selection or where the probability of
selection cannot be accurately determined.
• Typically, units are selected based on certain non-random
criteria, such as quota or convenience. Because selection
is non-random, nonprobability sampling does not allow
the estimation of sampling errors, and may be subjected to
a sampling bias. Therefore, information from a sample
cannot be generalized back to the population.
165
2.Non-Probability Sampling Methods...
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2.1. Convenience Sample

 Also called accidental or opportunity sampling,
this is a technique in which a sample is drawn
from that part of the population that is close to
hand, readily available, or convenient.
 The sampling procedure used to obtain those
units or people most conveniently available
 Why: speed and cost
 External validity?
 Internal validity
 Is it ever justified? 166

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2.1. Convenience Sample cont’d….
• For instance, if you stand outside a shopping center
and hand out questionnaire surveys to people or
interview them as they walk in, the sample of
respondents you will obtain will be a convenience
sample.
• This is a nonprobability sample because you are
systematically excluding all people who shop at other
shopping centers. This type of sampling is most
useful for pilot testing, where the goal is instrument
testing or measurement validation rather than
obtaining generalizable inferences. 167
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2.1. Convenience Sample cont’d….
 Advantages
 Very low cost
 Extensively used/understood
 No need for list of population elements
 Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured or
controlled
 Projecting data beyond sample not
justified.
168
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2.2. Quota Sample
 Quota sampling, sometimes considered a type of
purposive sampling, is also common. In quota
sampling, we decide while designing the study how
many people with which characteristics to include as
participants.
 Quota samples tend to include people who are easily
found, willing to be interviewed, and middle class.
 the purpose of quota sampling is to ensure that the
various subgroups in a population are represented on
pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that
the investigators desire.. 169
1-170
2.2. Quota Sampling Example
• For example, an interviewer in a particular city
may be assigned 100 interviews, 35 with owners
of Sony TVs, 30 with owners of Samsung TVs, 18
with owners of Panasonic TVs, and the rest with
owners of other brands. The interviewer is
responsible for finding enough people to meet the
quota. Aggregating the various interview quotas
yields a sample that represents the desired
proportion of each subgroup
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2.2. Quota Sampling cont’d…
 Advantages
 moderate cost
 Very extensively used/understood
 No need for list of population elements
 Introduces some elements of stratification
 Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured or
controlled (classification of subjects0
justified.
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2.3. Snowball Sampling
 In this method, participants or informants with who contact has
already been made use their social networks to refer the
researcher to other people who could potentially participate in or
contribute to the study. Snowball sampling is often used to find
and recruit ―hidden populations,‖ that is, groups not easily
accessible to researchers through other sampling strategies.
 For instance, if you wish to survey computer network
administrators and you know of only one or two such people,
you can start with them and ask them to recommend others who
also do network administration. Although this method hardly
leads to representative samples, it may sometimes be the only
way to reach hard-to reach populations or when no sampling
frame is available.
172
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2.3. Snowball Sampling…..
Person
RESEARCHER RESEARCHER HAS 3
1
CONTACTS
Friend/contact 1 Friend/contact 2 Friend/contact 3

contacts his/her contacts his/her contacts his/her
own own own
friends/contacts/ friends/contacts/ friends/contacts/
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
THE 3 CONTACTS EACH HAVE 3 CONTACTS

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2.3. Snowball Sampling…..
 Advantages
 low cost
 Useful in specific circumstances
 Useful for locating rare populations
 Disadvantages
 Bias because sampling units not
independent
justified.
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2.4. Judgment or Purposive Sample
 The sampling procedure in which an experienced
research selects the sample based on some
appropriate characteristic of sample members… to
serve a purpose.
 Purposive sampling:
sampling the process whereby the
researcher selects a sample based on experience or
knowledge of the group to be sampled…called
“judgment” sampling
175
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2.4. Judgment or Purposive Sample….
 Advantages
 Moderate cost
 Commonly used/understood
 Sample will meet a specific

objective
 Disadvantages
 Bias!

justified. 176
5.3. Methods and Techniques of Data Collection
1-177
Types of source of data

Data may broadly be divided
into two categories, namely
primary data and secondary
data.
177
1-178 5.3. Sources and Collection of Data Cont’d..
Method of data collection

Method of data collection
Secondary sources Primary sources
Documents
FGD Observation Interviewing Questionnaire
-Govmt publications Mailed

-Earlier research Participant Structured
Questionnaire
-Census
-Personal records
-Client histories Semi-Structured Collective
-Service records Questionnaire
Non-
Participant Unstructured
178
Methods of collecting primary data are available
i. Interviewing
In social research, there are many types of interview.
The most common of these are unstructured, semi-structured, and structured interviews.
a) Unstructured interviews
Unstructured or in-depth interviews are sometimes called life history interviews.
Used when the researcher attempts to achieve a holistic understanding of the interviewees‘
point of view or situation
The participant is free to talk about what he or she deems important, with little directional
influence from the researcher.
This type of interview can only be used for qualitative research.
b) Semi-structured interviews
Is perhaps the most common type of interview used in qualitative social research?
Used when the researcher wants to know specific information, which can be compared and
contrasted, with information gained in other interviews.
c) Structured Interview
A structured Interview also known as Standardized Interview or researcher Administered
survey is commonly used for Quantitative Research
The Aim of this approach is to ensure that each interview is presented with exactly the same
question order.
This ensures that answers can be reliably aggregated and that comparisons can be made
with confidence between sample subgroups or between different survey periods.
Structured Interview…….
Structured interviews can also be used as a qualitative research
methodology.
For structured qualitative interviews, it is usually necessary for
researchers to develop an interview schedule which lists the wording
and sequencing of questions.
Interview schedules are sometimes considered a means by which
researchers can increase the reliability and credibility of research data
D) Telephone Interview
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on
telephone itself.
This method is inexpensive but limited in scope, as respondents must possess a
telephone.
The telephone interview method is used in industrial surveys especially in
developed regions.
i. Interviewing…
d) In-Depth Interviewing
In-depth interviews are usually conducted face-to-face and involve one
interviewer and one participant.
ii. Observation
•The researcher collects the requisite information personally through
observation.
identified the following classification of observation based on the
degree of participation of the observer:
(a)Complete participant:
This means that you are a member of the group, and no one in the group
is aware of the fact that they are also an observer. While this might allow
a true ―insider‘s‖ view, it raises ethical concerns because, in essence,
researcher is deceiving the participants.
ii. Observation….
(b) Participant as observer:
 In this situation, researchers are active member of the group and
actively participate in the group‘s activities and interactions, but each
member of the group knows that researchers are also serving a research
role.
(c) Observer as participant:
Choosing to be an observer as participant removes the researcher a bit
from group membership.
 Although researchers certainly still have a connection to the group,
they will not likely participate in the group‘s activities.
(d) Complete observer:
Here researchers might conduct their observations from behind a one-
way mirror or in a public setting.
They are not a member of the group and do not participate in the
group‘s activities.
ii. Observation….
iii Questionnaire
Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before being
used on a large scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire:
• Closed –ended
• Open-ended
• Combination of both
iv. Focus Groups(FGD)
A focus group is a qualitative data collection method in which
one or two researchers and several participants meet as a group
to discuss a given research topic. It involves: moderator and
note-taker (facilitators).
• Moderators are responsible for leading the focus group
discussion.
• Note-takers are responsible for taking detailed notes of the
discussion.
• A typical number of participants is eight to
ten people, with a maximum of 12
Advantages:
• Accessing a broad range of views on a specific topic
• Use to measure services that meet the needs of a given
population.
• IS GOOD TO ANSWER WHY and HOW QUESTIONS, 185
Methods of collecting Secondary data are available
Secondary sources are those which are

made available or have been collected for
other research purposes. Within secondary
data exploration, a researcher should
review an organization's own data archives
and related documents. Reports and
studies of prior research studies often
reveal an extensive amount of historical
data or decision-
186
1-187 5.4. Methods of Data Analysis and Presentation
 The data obtained from a study may or may not be in

numerical or quantitative form, that is, in the form of
numbers.
 If they are not in numerical form, then we can still carry
out qualitative analyses based on the experiences of the
individual participants.
 If they are in numerical form, then we typically start by
working out some descriptive statistics to summarize the
pattern of findings.
• Qualitative and quantitative Data

analysis
187
5.4. Methods of Data Analysis and Interpretation Cont’d..
1-188
Methods of Data Analysis and Presentation

The data obtained from a study may or
may not be in numerical or quantitative
form, that is, in the form of numbers.
 In any study, two things might be true:
(1) there is a difference (the experimental
hypothesis), or (2) there is no difference
(the null hypothesis).
188
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5.4.1.Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data take the form of words
(spoken or written) and visual images (observed
or creatively produced).
 Interpretation of Interviews, Case
Studies, and Observations
i. Interviews
In general, unstructured interviews lend
themselves to qualitative analyses, whereas
structured interviews lend themselves to both
quantitative & qualitative analysis. 189
1-190

Interpretation of Interviews, Case
Studies, and Observations …..
ii. Case studies
Case studies (intensive investigations of
individuals) come in all shapes and sizes. We
need to be very careful when interpreting the
evidence from a case study. The greatest danger
is that very general conclusions may be drawn
based on a single atypical individual.
190
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Studies, and Observations
iii. Observations
The general issue here is that it is often very
hard to interpret or make sense of the data
obtained from observational studies, because
we can only speculate on the reasons why the
participants are behaving in the ways that we
observe.
191
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Studies, and Observations …
iv. Content Analysis
Content analysis is used when originally qualitative
information is reduced to numerical terms. Content
analysis started as a method for analyzing messages
in the media, including articles published in
newspapers, speeches made by politicians on radio
and television, various forms of propaganda, and
health records.
192
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5.4.2. Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative analysis techniques assist you in this process. They range
from creating simple tables or diagrams that show the frequency of
occurrence and using statistics such as indices to enable
comparisons, through establishing statistical relationships between
variables to complex statistical modeling.
Quantitative Analysis should always have a purpose:
 Describe.
 Compare.
 Examine similarities.
 Examine differences.
•The issue is not just HOW do we collect data, but how do we generate
useful information? 193
1-194
Descriptive Statistics
 Quantitative measures and ways of describing data help to Summarise and
organise data. The two main ways of summarizing data are by using tables and
charts or graphs.
 A table is the simplest way of summarizing a set of observations. A table has
rows and columns containing data, which can be in the form of absolute numbers or
percentages, or both.
 Charts and graphs are visual representations of numerical data and, if well
designed, will convey the general patterns of the data.
 Descriptive statistics enable you to describe (and compare) variables
numerically. Your research question(s) and objectives, although limited by the type
of data should guide your choice of statistics.
 Statistics to describe a variable focus on two aspects:
 the central tendency; measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode,
proportion),
 the dispersion -measures of dispersion (range, variance, standard
deviation),.and frequency distributions and histograms . Frequency
distribution = A simple table showing how many, or what percent, of the cases
2-194
fall into each variable category.
1-195
Descriptive Statistics…..
i. Measures of central tendency
•Measures of central tendency describe how the data cluster
together around a central point.
• There are three main measures of central tendency: the
mean; the median; and the mode.
•a. Mean
Mean: an average worked out by dividing the all participants‟ scores
by the number of participants.
Normal distribution: a bell-shaped distribution in which most scores
cluster fairly close to the mean.
Median: the middle score out of all participants‟ scores in a given
condition.
Mode: the most frequently occurring score among the participants
2-195
in
1-196
• Central tendency is an estimate of the center of a
distribution of values. There are three major
estimates of central tendency: mean, median, and
mode. The arithmetic mean (often simply called
the “mean”) is the simple average of all values in
a given distribution. Consider a set of eight test
scores: 15, 22, 21, 18, 36, 15, 25, 15. The
arithmetic mean of these values is (15 + 20 + 21 +
20 + 36 + 15 + 25 + 15)/8 = 20.875.
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1-197
• b. Median
• Another way of describing the general level of performance
in each condition is known as the median. If there is an odd
number of scores, then the median is simply the middle
score, having an equal number of scores higher and lower
than it does. In the example with nine scores in the no-noise
condition (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 9, 9, 17), the median is 7. Matters
are slightly more complex if there is an even number of
scores. In that case, we work out the mean of the two central
values. For example, suppose that we have the following
scores in size order: 2, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9. The two central values
are 5 and 7, and so the median is: (5+7)/2=6.
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c. Mode
•The final measure of central tendency is
the mode. This is simply the most
frequently occurring score. In the above
example of the nine scores in the no-noise
condition, the mode is 9.
•A final limitation is that it is possible for
there to be more than one mode. 2-198
1-199
• ii. Measures of dispersion
• The mean, median, and mode are all
measures of central tendency. It is also
useful to work out what are known as
measures of dispersion, such as the range,
inter-quartile range, variation ratio, and
standard deviation. These measures indicate
whether the scores in a given condition are
similar to each other or whether they are
spread out. 2-199
1-200
• ii. Measures of dispersion …..
KEY TERMS
 Range: the difference between the highest and lowest score in
any condition.
 Inter-quartile range: the spread of the middle 50% of an ordered
or ranked set of scores.
 Variation ratio: a measure of dispersion based on the proportion
of the scores that are not at the modal value.
 Standard deviation: a measure of dispersal that is of special
relevance to the normal distribution; it is the square root of the
variance. It takes account of every score, and is a sensitive
dispersion measure.
 Variance: a measure of dispersion that is the square of the
standard deviation. 2-200
1-201
a. Range
• The simplest of these measures is the range, which
can be defined as the difference between the
highest and the lowest score in any condition. In
the case of the no-noise group (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 9, 9,
17), the range is 17-1=16. In fact, it is preferable to
calculate the range in a slightly different way
(Coolican, 1994). The revised formula (when we
are dealing with whole numbers) is as follows:
(highest score - lowest score) +1.
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a. Range
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1-203
a. Range
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1-204
B. Standard deviation
• The most generally useful measure of dispersion is the standard
deviation. It is harder to calculate than the range or variation ratio,
but generally provides a more accurate measure of the spread
of scores.
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3.Data Presentation
Information about the scores in a sample can be
presented in several ways. If it is presented in a graph
or chart, this may make it easier for people to
understand what has been found, compared to simply
presenting information about the central tendency
and dispersion.
i. Frequency polygon
One way of summarizing these data is in the form of
a frequency polygon.
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1-206
3.Data Presentation
ii. Histogram
A similar way of describing these data is by means of
a histogram.
2-206
1-207
3.Data Presentation
iii. Bar chart
Frequency polygons and histograms are suitable
when the scores obtained by the participants can be
ordered from low to high
2-207
1-208
3.Data Presentation
iv. Pie-charts
Pie charts are other means used to present data
through circular graphics. Pie charts, as their name
suggests, present data as segments of the whole pie.
2-208
1-209
4. STATISTICAL TESTS
statistical test is to decide whether
your data were obtained from an
experiment in which some aspect of
the situation (the independent
variable) was manipulated in order to
observe its effects on the dependent
variables.
2-209
1-210
4. STATISTICAL TESTS …
2-210
1-211
4. STATISTICAL TESTS …
Summary
Nominal data: data consisting of the numbers of participants
falling into qualitatively different categories.
Ordinal data: data that can be ordered from smallest to largest.
Interval data: data in which the units of measurement have an
invariant or unchanging value.
Ratio data: as interval data, but with a meaningful zero point.
Parametric tests: statistical tests that require interval or ratio
data, normally distributed data, and similar variances in both
conditions.
Non-parametric tests: statistical tests that do not involve the
requirements of parametric tests.
2-211
1-212 5.5. Research Ethics in Accounting and Finance
The Basics of ethics
 Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception,
misconduct and abuses in research increasingly becoming a crucial
area of discussion, for instance, between psychologists,
philosophers, ethical groups, health professionals and researchers
engaged in various fields of research.
 Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between
researchers and the people they study (and in recent decades, on
laboratory animals as well); while professional ethics deals, among
others, with additional issues such as collaborative relationships
among researchers, mentoring relationships, intellectual property,
fabrication of data and plagiarism (plagiarism will be covered in the
last unit of this module).
2-212
Ethical guidelines
 Ethical issues in business research extend from those concerned with
the con-duct of the research through to the publications process
subsequent to the research.
 Some of these issues remain hopelessly under-addressed in many
universities (those in the UK are a good example) especially
compared to what is undertaken in Australian universities. An
apparent conflict with the traditional all-embracing role of the
supervisor may contribute to the problem, especially where ethics
committees are perceived to be interfering unnecessarily.
2-213
1 What is ethics in research?
The word ethics comes from a Greek word ‘ethos’ (character). Ethics is a
systematic study of value concepts, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’ and the general
principles that justify applying these concepts. It is not considering the poor hapless
participant at the expense of science and society. It is to learn how to make research
“work” for all concerned.
When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing
between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would
have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath
("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou
Shalt not kill..."), or wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most
common way of defining "ethics": ethics are norms for conduct that distinguish
between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in religious institutions, or in

other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong
during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass
through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous
that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense
2-214
Why is research ethics important?
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical
norms in research.
 First, some of these norms promote the aims of research, such as
knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions
against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote
the truth and avoid error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the values that are
essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect,
and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for
authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality
rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while
encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their
contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
2-215
Why is research ethics important?
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical
norms in research cont’d,,,
 Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can
be held accountable to the public For instance, US federal policies on
research misconduct, on conflicts of interest, on the human study
participant’s protections, and on animal care and use are necessary in
order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can
be held accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support
for research. People are more likely to fund research project if they can
trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of
research promote a variety of other important moral and social values,
such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance
with the law, and health and safety.
2-216
Codes and Policies for Research Ethics
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals
that various codes address:
Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly
report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do
not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues,
granting agencies, or the public
Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is
expected
Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity;
strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and
critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep
good records of research activities, such as data collection, research
design, and correspondence with agencies or journals. 2-217
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals
that various codes address: Cont’d
Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to
criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and
other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due.
Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research.
Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers
or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military
secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and
scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise
students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their2-218own
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that
various codes address: Cont’d
Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the
basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific
competence and integrity.
Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and
expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.
Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental
policies.
Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in
research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human study participants’ protection: When conducting research on human
study participants minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable
populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
2-219
1-220 5.6. Report Writing
Writing A Research Report
Writing up‘ is an integral part of the research process. It is not
something tagged on at the end. Nor is it a simple,
straightforward task. Far from it, writing up is skilfull. It
involves a blend of interpretation, craft, and convention aimed
at producing a formal record of the research that can be
evaluated by others. Writing up, in essence, calls on
researchers to exercise skill and judgment as they:
• produce an account of the research;
• tailor reports to meet the requirements of different audiences;
• adopt an appropriate style of writing and take account of
certain technical conventions.
2-220
Step in Report writing
There is some consensus that when writing up
research the report should include sections
which:
explain the purpose of the research;
describe how the research was done;
present the findings from the research;
discuss and analyze the findings;
reach conclusions and possible
recommendations.
2-221
Kothari (2008) mentioned that research reports are the product of slow,
painstaking, accurate inductive work. According to him, the usual steps
involved in writing report are:
1) Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is
primarily concerned with the development of a subject.
2)Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the
research report “Outlines are the framework upon which long written
works are constructed.
3)Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of
the subject and the preparation of the final outline.
4)Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be
most difficult part of all formal writing.
5)Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of
the preparation of the final bibliography,
6)Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. 2-222
Style and presentation when writing up the research
Project researchers, then, are best advised to stick to the rules.
Use the third person
Use the past tense
Ensure good standards of spelling and grammar
Develop logical links from one section to the next
Use headings and sub-headings to divide the text into
clear sections
Be consistent in the use of the referencing style
Use care with the page layout
Present tables and figures properly
2-223
Types of Report writing
The structure of research reports/Layout of
The Research Report
The conventional structure for reporting
research divides the material into three
parts:
1. the preliminary part,
2. the main body and
3. The end matter.
2-224
Types of Report writing Cont’d
1. The preliminary part are:
Title :
Abstract
Key words
List of contents
List of tables and figures:
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations 2-225
2.The main Body
2-226
3.The end matter
Appendices
References
2-227
Referencing
As far as the References section is concerned, there are seven key components of the
Harvard system:
Author’s name and initial(s). Alphabetical order on authors‘ surnames. Surname
followed by forename or initial. If the book is an edited volume, then (ed.) or (Eds)
should follow the name.
Date of publication. To identify when the work was written and to distinguish
different works published by the same author(s).
Title. The title of a book is put in italics, and uses capital letters for the first letter of
the main words. Papers and articles are not in italics and have titles in lower case.
Journal name (if applicable). This is put in italics and details are given of the
number, volume and page numbers of the specified article. If the source is, a
contribution to an edited volume then details is given about the book, in which it
appears (i.e. editor‘s name, title of edited volume).
Publisher. Vital for locating more obscure sources. This is included for books but
not for journals.
Place of publication. Helpful in the location of obscure sources.
Edition. If the work appears in a second or subsequent edition this needs to be
specified. 2-228
Step in Report writing Cont’d..
The American Psychological Association (APA)
style is widely accepted in the social sciences and
other fields,
Citation styles are standardized systems for
crediting and citing sources you’ve used for your
research paper or assignment. Your program or
degree will require you to use a specific citation
style. The American Psychological Association
(APA) citation style is one of many different
citation styles. Other style options include MLA
(Modern Language Association), CSE (Counsel of
Science Editors) Harvard style and Vancouver
2-229
APA style citation format
2-230
Example of APA style citation Reference
2-231
END OF THE
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1-1

Research Methods in Accounting & Finance

All Chapter with course outline

Organized by: Solomon Ch., October . 2021

Organized by: Solomon Chekole, 2020

Chances of success is Chances of success is not

Meaning, Definition and Concept

Research commonly refers to a search for

Meaning, Definition and Concept ….

If there is a problem there is always a

• Searching Again and Again

The possible motives for doing research can be

What makes people to undertake research?

06/19/24 Organized by:Solomon Chekole 21

• Desire to be of service to society;

06/19/24 Organized by: Solomon Chekole 22

The research has the following three

value in carrying out research

Research Methods vs Methodology

Thus, when we talk of research

06/19/24 Organized by:Solomon Chekole 33

06/19/24 Organized by:Solomon Chekole 34

06/19/24 Organized by:Solomon Chekole 35

Basic Research/pure research

1. Exploratory research (Pilot Survey)

4. Analytic ( Explanatory )research

4. Analytic ( Explanatory ) research …..

Quantitative methods Mixed Method Qualitative Method

06/19/24 Organized by:Solomon Chekole 47

3.1.2.Defining and Formulation of the Research Problem

Criteria of usable hypotheses

Criteria of usable hypotheses Cont’d..

Hypothesis Formulation in Quantitative Methods

Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Null and Alternative Hypothesis Cont’d

Criteria of usable hypotheses Cont’d..

Hypothesis Formulation in Quantitative Methods

Hypothesis Formulation in Quantitative Methods

The research proposal has the following purposes.

3) Introduction (background and justification)

4) Statement of the problem

7. Significance /Value of the Research

7. Significance /Value of the Research……..

11. Research Methodology

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11.3. Data Collection Method:

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11.4. Sampling Technique

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

11. Research Methodology cont’d…

12. Work Plan or Time schedule...

12. Work Plan or Time schedule Sample...

Book and eBook

National Bank (NBE, 2015/2016) NBE. (2015/16), Annual

Types of literature review

How to Conduct a Review of literature

At this stage we have only an ‘association’; we cannot postulate a

 In the above Figure, would normally be associated with dependence

Types of sampling Design

Systematic Stratified Convenience Snowball

1.1. Simple Random Sampling