Botany

Prepared by Suraj Acharya

1.Introduction to biology
 Meaning of Biology:
• The term ‘biology’ is derived from Greek word
where ‘bios’ means life and logos means to
study.
• Biology is the branch of science that deals with the
study of living organism (i.e. both plant and
animals ).
• The term biology was first coined/used by Lamarck
and Treviranus in 1802.
 Branches of biology
• Biology is mainly divided into two branches.
A) Botany B) Zoology
A)Botany
• The term ‘botany’ is derived from Greek word
‘botane’(बोटेन) i.e. grass
• One who studies ‘botany’ is known as a
‘botanist’.
• The branch of biology that deals with the study
of a plant is called botany.
• Theophrastus is considered as father of botany.
 Zoology

• The branch of biology that deals with the

study of animals is called zoology.
• Aristotle is considered as father of both
zoology and biology.
 Terminologies
1.Plant anatomy
• It deals with the study of internal structure of
plants
2. Morphology
• It deals with the study of external structure of
plant.
3.Histology
• It deals with the study of tissue
 Cont…
3.Histology
• It deals with the study of tissue
4.Cytology
• It deals with the study of cell
5.Mycology
• It deals with the study of fungi @FM
6.Phycology
• It deals with the study of algae@AP
 Cont…
7.Genetics
• It deals with the study of heredity and
variations
8.Plant pathology
• It deals with the study of different types of
disease of plants
9.Floriculture
• It deals with the study of cultivation of flower
 Cont….
10. Spermology : Study of seed
11.Taxonomy :Deals with identification ,
nomenclature and classification of organism.
12.Virology : Virus
13.Bacteriology : Bacteria
14.Agronomy : crop production and their
management
15.Anthology: Flowers
16.Apiculture : Bee keeping
 Cont….
1. Herpetology - Amphibians and reptiles
2. Ichthyology - Fishes
3. Kalology - Human beauty
4. Karyology - Nucleus
5. Lepidopterology - Butterfly and moths
6. Limnology - freshwater ecology
7. Malacology - Molluscs
8. Mammalogy - Mammals
 Cont…
1. Microbiology - microorganisms
2. Molecular biology - biomolecules
3. Nematology - roundworms
4. Nephrology - kidneys
5. Neurology - nervous system
6. Oncology - cancer
7. Ophiology - snakes
8. Ophthalmology - eyes
9. Ornithology - birds
10. Osteology - bones
 Possible question
1. Father of Zoology and biology is
a)Aristotle b) Theophrastus c) Carolus Linnaeus d) none
2. Study of plant
a)Botany b) zoology c)Taxonomy d) Phycology
3.Study of fungi
a)Botany b) Mycology c)Taxonomy d) Phycology
4. Study of seed is
a)Botany b) Spermology c)Taxonomy d) Phycology
5. The term biology was coined by
a)Lamarck and Treviranus b) Aristotle c) Theophrastus d) Carolus Linnaeus
6.Biology is
a)Greek word b) Latin word c) French word d) none
 Father of various disciplines
• Cytology : Robert Hooke
• Genetics : G.J. Mendel
• Histology : Marcello Malphighii
• Medicine : Hippocrates
• Microbiology : Louis Pasteur
• Taxonomy Carolus
Two kingdom classification system Linnaeus

(Living beings- plants and animals )

• Five kingdom classification system : R.H. Whittaker
 Cont…
• Bacteriology : Robert Koch
• Modern genetics : Bateson
• Virology : Stanley
• Antibiotics : Alexander Flemming
 Characteristics of living organism
1.Respiration
• Breakdown of glucose to release energy (ATP-Adenosine
triphosphate) which is further used by cells to perform various
functions.
C6H12O6+ 6O2→ 6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy (ATP)
• ATP-Adenosine triphosphate is called the energy currency of the
cell. It function by providing energy for various biochemical
processes within the cells.
• Types of respiration
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
 Cont…
• Aerobic respiration : The energy is produced
by the breakdown of glucose( food) in the
presence of oxygen. E.g. Higher organism
• Anaerobic respiration: The energy is produced
by the breakdown of glucose( food) in the
absence of oxygen. e.g. bacteria ,parasites
 Cont…
2.Nutrition
On the basis of mode of nutrition , living organism
classified as
1. Autotrophic : Autotrophs (green plants )-producers
2. Heterotrophic: Heterotrophs- consumer
a) Saprozoic nutrition : The animals which feed on dead
organic matter e.g. Earthworm
b) Saprophytic : The plants which feed on dead and
decaying organic matter e.g. fungi
c) Parasitic nutrition : The one organism that depend on
other organism for survival. E.g. Tapeworm ,liver fluke
 Cont…
3. Digestion
The process by which complex food material
convert into simpler form which can be
absorbed into blood / by our body.
4. Excretion
Process of removal of waste product
5. Growth
Increase in size
 Cont….
6.
Cold blooded ( poikilothermic ) : Fish ,frog ,snakes
Warm blooded (Homeothermic ) : Birds, mammals
Warm-blooded animals are defined as animals that
can regulate and maintain constant internal
body temperature.
7.
Egg laying (oviparous )– Birds reptiles
Direct birth (Viviparous) – Mammals ( goat , cow )
 Photosynthesis

• • Photosynthesis is a process of preparation

(synthesis) of food by green plants in the
presence of light by using CO2 and H2O.
 unit -2
(Biomolecules)
 Defined as different molecules or chemical compounds which are
found/present in living cell. E.g. carbohydrate ,protein ,water
 Those chemical components required for cellular activities.
 Those molecules can be organic or inorganic.
(A) Organic compounds:
• A chemical compound containing carbon is called organic compound. Carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are joining in the various combinations to
form several organic compounds.
• Further classified into macromolecules and micromolecules.
• Micromolecules: low molecular weight, simple in structure and smaller in size
for e.g. monosaccharides, nucleotide, amino acid, fatty acid and glycerol etc.
• Macromolecules: Higher molecular weight and complex in structure is called
macromolecules. For e.g. polysaccharides, polynucleotide (nucleic acid),
polypeptides ( protein ), lipid etc.
 Cont..
B) Inorganic compound: A chemical compound
without carbon is called inorganic compound.
Example- salt, water(H2O) and minerals
 Cont…
• Cellular pool: Collection of all biomolecules which
are present in living cell is known cellular pool.
• Monomers:
– Monomers are smallest/basic unit from which polymers
are made.
– Micromolecules act as monomers.
– Example: Amino acid, Monosaccharide
• Polymers:
– Polymers are formed when monomers(i.e. amino
acid ,monosaccharides join together )
– Micromolecules act as monomers
– Example: Protein, Polysaccharide
 Carbohydrates

– Carbon + hydrates /hydrates of carbon i.e. C(H2O)

– commonly called saccharides because basic
component is sugar.
– organic compound which is composed of C,H and O
– Hydrogen and oxygen are present in the ratio of 2:1
– General formula – Cn (H2O)n
 Classification of carbohydrate

3 types. They are :

• Monosaccharides:
– It is the simplest form of the carbohydrate and is
formed by one sugar subunit / monosaccharide
molecule. So they cannot be hydrolyzed.
– They are highly soluble in water and usually sweet
in taste.
– The common examples of monosaccharides are
glucose, fructose, and galactose.
 Cont..
• Oligosaccharides:
– Oligosaccharides are formed by 2-10 sugar
subunit / monosaccharide molecule.
– They are also soluble in water and sweet in taste.
– There are various types of oligosaccharides. They
are
• Disaccharides-
• formed by 2 monosaccharides molecule For e.g.
• Maltose – glucose + glucose
• Sucrose – glucose + fructose
• Lactose – glucose + galactose
 Cont…
• Polysaccharides
– Polysaccharides are formed by more than 10
monosaccharides molecule.
– They are insoluble in water and not sweet in taste.
– The common polysaccharides are starch, glycogen
and cellulose.
– Starch is the reserved food material in plant whereas
glycogen in animal
 Function of carbohydrate
• Function of carbohydrate
– Carbohydrate as energy source : About 60% of
the total energy is provided by the breakdown of
carbohydrates
– Carbohydrate acts reserve food: Starch is the
reserved food material in plant whereas glycogen
in animals.
 Glycosidic bond:

– A Glycosidic bond is type of covalent bond that

formed between two monosaccharides.
– This is a dehydration reaction (also known as a
condensation reaction).
– The resulting -C-O-C- bond is called a glycosidic
bond.
 Proteins

– Proteins are the polymers of amino acids.

– Several amino acids join together by the peptide
bond to form a proteins hence the protein is also
known as poly peptides.
 Cont..
• Classification of protein
– On the basis of chemical nature, Proteins can be classified into
three types. They are given below ;
1. Simple protein: They are formed by amino acids only, e.g.
albumin
2. Conjugated protein: They are formed by the combination
of amino acid and prosthetic group
E.g. Lipoprotein = lipid + protein where lipid is prosthetic
group
3. Derived proteins: They are the substance derived from
simple and compound protein by hydrolysis. E.g.
Proteoses
 Structure of Proteins
a)Primary structure:
– found in the form of linear sequence of amino acids.
– Also called polypeptide chain
b)Secondary structure:
– polypeptide chain undergoes folding or coiling into Alpha
helices and beta sheet which is stabilized by hydrogen
bonding.
c)Tertiary structure:
• Folded upon itself like a hollow wollen ball.
d) Quaternary structure
• More than one polypeptide chain
Cont…
 Peptide bond:

• Peptide bond is a type of covalent bond formed

between two amino acids with the elimination of
water.
• This is a dehydration synthesis reaction (also
known as a condensation reaction).
• The resulting -CONH- bond is called a peptide
bond.
 Amino acids

– Amino acids are building blocks of proteins.

– Amino acid is an organic compounds containing an
amino group (-NH2) group and carboxyl group
(acid group) (-COOH).
– About 20 amino acids are occurring naturally.
 Cont..
Essential amino acid Non essential amino acid
1. Arginine 1. Alanine
2. Histidine 2. Aspragine
3. Isoleucine 3. Aspartic acid
4. Leucine 4. Glutamic acid
5. Lysine 5. Glutamine
6. Methionine 6. Glycine
7. Phenylanine
7. proline
8. Theronine
8. Serine
9. Tryptophane
9. Cysteine Semi-Essential
10. Valine Amino acid
10. Tyrosine
@AV HILL MPTT
 Cont..
• Simple Amino acid – Glycine
• Sulpher containing amino acid :
Cysteine ,Methionine
 Types of amino acid
Essential amino acid
1. These amino acids are not
synthesized by our body.
2. These amino acids must be
supply through diet.
3. Example- Isoleucine, Leucine.
Non-essential amino acid
1. These amino acids are
synthesized by our body.
2. These amino acid are abundant
in our body. So, These amino acids
may not be required to supply
through diet.
3. Example- Serine, Alanine
 Lipids

– Lipids are the group of fat and fat like substances.

– Chemically, lipids are ester of fatty acids and alcohol.
– These are relatively insoluble in water and soluble in
organic solvents like ether, chloroform and benzene.
Thus, they are hydrophobic in nature.
 Types of lipids
They are classified into three types.
1)Simple lipid: They are formed by fatty acid and alcohol only.
Example
• Fats and oils: A fat is solid at ordinary room temperature whereas oil is liquid.
• Waxes: e.g. Bee wax
2) Compound lipid: They are formed by combination of fatty acids with alcohol and
additional groups.
Example
a) Glycolipid: Carbohydrate and Lipid
b) Carbohydrate is additional group
c) Phospholipid: Phosphoric Acid and Lipid
d) Phosphoric acid is additional group Lipoprotein: protein and Lipid
e) Protein is additional group
3) Derived lipid: They are the substance derived from simple and compound lipids by
hydrolysis.
E.g. Steroids (Cholesterol)
 Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are the polymer of nucleotides.

Nucleoside is made of two units: Nitrogenous base + Sugar
Nucleotide is made up of three units: Nitrogenous base +
Sugar + Phosphate group.
• Phosphate group -
It is phosphorus atom bound to 4 oxygen atoms.
• Sugar group
This can be either ribose or deoxyribose sugar.
• Nitrogen base
This can be A, G, C, T or U.
 Cont…
• Depending upon the chemical nature of
pentose sugar,
• Nucleic acids is of two types. They are
a)Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
Double helical Structure of DNA was given by
Watson and Crick Model
b)RNA:
Cont..

Fig : Double
helical structure
of DNA
Fig : RNA
 Cont…
• Phoshphodiester bond
– The covalent bond formed between two
nucleotide with the elimination of water is called
phoshphodiester bond
– Sugar and phosphate are linked together by
phoshphodiester bond
 Types of RNA

• On the basis of molecular size and functions,

the RNA is of three types:
1.r- RNA (Ribosomal RNA):
– It occupies about 80% of the total RNA in the cell.
– It is associated with ribosome. So, it is involved in protein
synthesis
 Cont…
2. t- RNA (Transfer RNA):
– It occupies about 15% of the total RNA in the cell.
– It transfer amino acid molecule from cytoplasm to
ribosome for protein synthesis.
 Cont..
3. m-RNA (messenger RNA):
– It occupies about 5% of the total RNA present in
the cell.
– It bring message (i.e. genetic information) from
DNA to ribosome for Protein synthesis.
 Difference between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA

DNA stands for ribonucleic acid RNA stands for ribonucleic acid
DNA is usually double stranded RNA is usually single stranded

DNA is mostly found in the nucleus RNA is mostly found in the cytoplasm.

It show double helical shaped structure It show hairpin shaped structure

It contain deoxyribose sugar It contain ribose sugar

It is involved in transformation of genetic It is involved in protein synthesis

information.

It can produce RNA by transcription It cannot produce DNA

 Water (H2O)

 The essentiality of water for living system is

quite evident a without water, there is no life.
 Composition of living cell : 70-80 %
 In many hydrophytes and fruits, water
appears in even high percentage.
 Universal solvent
 Structure of water:

– Bent or v- shaped
structure
– Bond angle – 104.5
– It is highly polar
molecule because
oxygen has greater
electronegativity as
compared to hydrogen
– In H2O, oxygen act as
central element and
hydrogen atom act as
surrounding element
 Unit 3 : Plant tissue
• Plant anatomy – The Study of internal structure
of plant is called plant anatomy.
• Cell – Smallest unit of living organism is called
cell.
• Tissue – Tissue refers to group of cell common
in origin and performs a particular function.
• The term meristem is coined by Nageli
 Cont…
• Seed Absorb water Germinate (radicle and
plumule emerge )
Primary growth
• Increases the length of the root and stem.
• It occurs in young plant part.
• Occurs in both monocot and dicot
Secondary growth
• Increases the thickness of the root and stem.
• only occurs in mature plant part where primary growth
has ceased .
• Only occurs in dicot
 Types of plant tissue
• The plant tissue are divided into two types
1. Meristematic tissue
2. Permanent tissue
1. Meristematic tissue
• The plant tissue which is capable of dividing
throughout its life is called meristematic tissue.
• They are usually found at growing region of plant
(root apex or shoot apex).
• Main function is to enhance the growth of plant
body.
 Cont…
Meristematic tissue on the basis of position of plant
1.Apical meristem:
• Type of Primary meristem
• Found at growing region of plant such as root tip and shoot tip
• Activity of apical meristem cause increase in length of shoot and root
• It is of two types: root apical meristem and shoot apical meristem
2.Intercalary meristem:
• Type of Primary meristem
• It is located at the base of leaves(pinus) /nodal region (Mentha ) /base of internodes
1st priority
(grass)
• It is found in grass.
• Activity of intercalary meristem also cause increase in length/ height of plant
3.Lateral meristem:
• Type of Secondary meristem
• Found along the lateral sides of root and shoot
• Active only in mature plant
• Activity of lateral meristem cause increase in thickness of shoot and root of plant
Fig : Types of meristematic tissue
 Cont…..

Fig : node and

internode Fig : Mentha
 Cont…
2. Permanent tissue:
• The plant tissue which is not capable of
dividing is called permanent tissue.
• They perform specific function and function
varies with tissue types ( xylem and phloem -
conduction / collenchyma- mechanical
support /parenchyma-photosynthesis)
 Cont..
2.1 Simple permanent tissue: The permanent
tissue which is composed of one type of cell
only is called simple permanent tissue.
Further classified into
1.Parenchyma:
• Main functions are storage of food,
photosynthesis and secretion
 Cont…
2. Collenchyma
• Main function is that they provide flexibility or
mechanical support to young plant body

Bamboo
 Cont…
3.Sclerenchyma (hard tissue)
• It provide hardness to the plant body and
provide protection from stress
• Dead cell

Coconut husk
 Cont…
2.2 Complex permanent tissue:
• The permanent tissue which is composed of
more than one type of cell is called complex
tissue.
a) Xylem
• It is a conducting tissue that transport water and
minerals
• Direction of transport / flow - upward
 Cont…
b) Phloem
• It transport food material
• Direction of flow/ transport – Both upward
and downward (bidirectional )
 Cont..
• Secretary tissue -Secretary tissues are the tissues
which are concerned with secretions of gums, resin
etc.
• -These secretions can be beneficial or non beneficial
to plant. -It is found in pith, cortex, xylem, and
phloem. ☆These are of two types
A) Lactiferous tissues - Latex producing tissues are
called lactiferous tissues.
• -They produce milky juice known as latex. -They are
thin walled, elongated and well branched
parenchymatous cell. -They are source of rubber,
papain, chewing gum etc.
 Cont….
B) Glandular tissue
• These tissue forms glandular structure which
secrete chemical substances.
• These glands are present on epidermis
Example
• Nectar secreting nectarines present in flowers of
flowering plant
 Unit 3 : Plant physiology
• Father of plant physiology –Stephan hales
• Plant physiology deals with physiological
process or functions of plant
 Diffusion
• Diffusion: Diffusion is defined as movement of molecules from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
 Cont…
• (Note: Equilibrium- Till the concentration is equal on both
the side)
• Diffusing molecules may be gas, liquid and solid (Diffusion
rate gas>liquid>solid)
Examples of diffusion
• A spray of perfume or room freshener will get diffused into
the air by which we can sense the odour
• A tea bag immersed in a cup of hot water will diffuse into
the water and change its color
• Spreading of ink when a drop of it is put in a glass of water
• Aroma of flowers spread in air by diffusion attracts
pollinators
 Osmosis
• Osmosis is defined as movement of water
molecules from a region of lower
concentrated solution to a region of higher
concentrated solution through a semi
permeable membrane.
 Cont…
Example:
a)Swelling of seeds when they are soaked in water
• Semi permeable membrane: It is a biological
membrane which allow only solvent molecule
to pass through it is called semi permeable
membrane e.g. egg membrane.
• Solvent: water
• Solute: salt, sugar
• Solution: solute + solvent (water)
 Types of solution
There are three different types of solution Low solute
concentration
(NOTE: Iso- same)
• Hypertonic solution: A hypertonic solution is one that has
a higher solute concentration outside the cell than inside.
(Solute outside the cell > solute inside the cell- cell will
loose water – Shrinkage occurs - termed as Exosmosis)
• Hypotonic solution: A hypotonic solution is one that has a
higher concentration inside the cell than outside. (Solute
outside the cell < solute inside the cell - cell will gain
water –Swelling occurs - termed as Endosmosis)
• Isotonic solution: An isotonic solution is one that has a
same concentration of solute both inside and outside the
cell.
 Types of osmosis
Osmosis is of two types
• Note: (Endo- inside the cell, Exo- outside the cell)
1.Endo - osmosis:
• When a substance is placed in hypotonic solution, the water
molecules moves inside the cell and the cell becomes turgid or
undergoes deplasmolysis. This is known as endosmosis.
Example : kismiss (raisin) swell in normal water due to endo
osmosis
2.Exo - osmosis:
• When a substance is placed in hypertonic solution, the water
molecules move outside the cell and the cell becomes flaccid
or undergoes plasmolysis. This is known as exosmosis.
Example grapes shrinkage in salt solution due to exo - osmosis.
 Cont….
Plasmolysis:
• The process in which cell will lose water and
being flaccid / shrunken
• It causes the plant to wilt
Turgidity:
• The process in which cells gain water and
being swollen
• It helps the plants to stand upright
 TRANSPIRATION

• The loss of water from the living tissues of

aerial parts of the plant in the form of water
vapour is known as transpiration. It occurs
through the aerial parts of the plant, such as
leaves, stems, and flowers.
Conc..
Cont..
 Types of transpiration

• Depending upon the plant parts involved in the transpiration,

the transpiration is classified into three types
1.Stomatal transpiration (through leaves) –
• Loss of water through stomata of plant is called stomatal
transpiration.
• It accounts for around 90 % of the total water loss from plants.
• Specialized pores present in the lower surface of leaves is called
stomata
2.Cuticular transpiration (through leaves and stem) –
• Loss of water through cuticle of plants called cuticular.
• It accounts for around 9% of the total water loss from plants.
• Impermeable covering present on the leaves and stems of plants
is called cuticle.
 Conc.
3.Lenticular transpiration (through bark) –
• Loss of water through lenticels of plants called
lenticular transpiration.
• It accounts for around 1% of the total water
loss from plants.
• A tiny opening present on the woody barks of
plants is called lenticel.
Cont…
 Photosynthesis

• • Photosynthesis is a process of preparation

(synthesis) of food by green plants in the
presence of light by using CO2 and H2O.
 Respiration
1.Respiration
• Breakdown of glucose to release energy (ATP-Adenosine
triphosphate) which is further used by cells to perform various
functions.
C6H12O6+ 6O2→ 6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy (ATP)
• ATP-Adenosine triphosphate is called the energy currency of the
cell. It function by providing energy for various biochemical
processes within the cells.
• Types of respiration
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
 Unit 4 : Genetics
• The branch of biological science which deals
with the study of heredity and variation is
called genetics.
• The scientist study in genetics was started
with the time of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-
1884). He is considered as the pioneer in the
field of genetics and appropriately called ‘the
father of genetics’. His conclusion constitutes
the foundations of Modern Genetics.
 Cont..
• Heredity: Heredity may be defined as the
transmission of characters from one
generation to successive generations or from
parents to their off spring.
• Variation: The visible differences between the
parents and the offspring or between the
offspring or between the offspring of the same
parents.
 Some important terms used in Genetics:

– Gene: It is a segment of DNA, called citron, which

determines /codes a particular character of an organism.
Note : DNA (Entire character of whole organism – height ,flower color ,
seed color)
– Allele: alternative forms of a gene.
Height – gene , allele – tallness and dwarfness
– Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, i.e. the
combination of alleles it possesses.
– Phenotype: The external appearance or observable
characteristics of an organism is called phenotype.
– Homozygous: The individuals with two identical alleles of the
same gene are called homozygous.
– Heterozygous: The individuals with two different alleles of
 Cont..
– Mutation: Sudden heritable change in the genetic material of
organisms is called mutation.
– Back cross: A cross between F1 hybrids and one of the two
parents from which they are derived is called back cross.
– Test cross: The cross of F1 hybrids with the recessive parent is
called test cross.
Dominant:
• The character which appears in F1 generation is called
dominant.
Recessive:
• The alternative character that fails to show itself in the
presence of dominant gene called recessive.
 Selection of material:
He selected the garden pea plant as a best
material for his hybridization experiments,
because;
1. Its life cycle is comparatively short.
2. Plants are annual and easy to
cultivate/manage.
3. Peas have many easily observable
morphological characteristics ( seven traits).
4. Flowers are bisexual and naturally self-
fertilizing, but they can also be easily cross-
fertilized.
 Cont..
• The traits that Mendel studied are listed
below:
1. Form of ripe seed (R) Smooth or wrinkled

2. Color of seed albumen (Y) Yellow or green

3. Color of flower (P) Purple or white

4. Form of ripe pods (I) Inflated or constricted

5. Color of unripe pods (G) Green or yellow

6. Position of flowers (A) Axial or terminal

7. Length of stem (T) Tall or dwarf

 Cont….
• Monohybrid Cross: The cross which involves a
single pair of contrasting characters is called
monohybrid cross.
• Dihybrid Cross: The cross which involves two
pairs of contrasting characters is called
dihybrid cross
 Mendel’s Law:

• Classified into three laws namely:

1.1st law of inheritance or law of dominance
2.2nd law of inheritance or law of segregation or
law of purity of gametes:
3.3rd law of inheritance or law of Independent
Assortment
 Some important points
• Monohybrid test cross ratio = 1:1
• Dihybrid test cross ratio = 1:1:1:1
• Monohybrid Mendelian phenotypic ratio= 3:1
and genotypic ratio =1:2:1
• Dihybrid Mendelian phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1
and genotypic ratio 1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1
 MCQ
1.Innate tendency of offspring to resemble their parents is
a)Variation b)heredity c)inheritance d)resemblance
2.The tendency of offspring to differ from parents
a)Variation b)heredity c)inheritance d)resemblance
3. Who is regarded as the father of genetics ?
a)Bateson b)Morgan c)Mendel d) Watson
4.Mendels experimental material was
a)Pisum sativum b) Triticum aestivum c) Oryza sativa d)none
5.During his experiment, Mendel called genes by the term
a)Traits b)factors c)characters d)qualities
6. The physical expression or appearance of living organism
a)Morphology b)genotype c)phenotype d)anatomy
7. Genotype is the
a)Genetic constitution b) genetic constitution of the phenotype c)trait expressed d)
expressed gene
8)Mendel1.bstudied
2.a how3.cmany4.a 5.bcontrasting
pairs of 6.c 7.b 8.c
characters
a)1 b) 5 c) 7 d) 9
 Unit 5 : BIODIVERSITY

• The term biodiversity was coined by W.G

Rosen in 1985.
• Biodiversity is the variety of all species, their
gene (genetic information) they contain and
the ecosystems they form.
• It refers to diversity among plants, animals and
microorganisms in a given unit area.
 Types

The biodiversity mainly consist of three types, they are

Genetic diversity It refers to diversity among the genetic makeup of the
organism. Example: There are different varieties in the same species
of rice, wheat, barley etc. [Variety of gene they contain within a
species]
Species diversity
• It refers to diversity among species in an ecosystem. No two
individuals of the same species are exactly similar. [Variety of all
species in given area]
Ecosystem diversity
• It refers to diversity among the different ecosystem (habitat) in a
given unit area.
• Diversity in different ecosystem like desert, forest, pond etc. includes
ecological diversity. [Variety of the ecosystem they form]
 Cont..
• Endemic plant species Those plant species
which are found exclusively in a particular
area. There are 400 species of vascular plants
which are endemic to Nepal. Example- one
horned rhino
• Flora – The term flora means plant
• Fauna - The term flora means animal
 Types of Ecosystem

• . There are two types of ecosystem:

1. Natural Ecosystem (Naturally made ecosystem These
operate by themselves under natural condition.
• Terrestrial ecosystem (land based ecosystem )
• Aquatic ecosystem (water based ecosystem)
2.Artificial Ecosystem (Man - made ecosystem )
• Terrestrial
– Crop Fields
– Garden
• Aquatic
– Aquarium
 Unit 6 : Ecosystem

• The system results from interaction between

the biotic and the abiotic factors of
environment in a confined geographical area.
• The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by A. G.
Tansley, an English botanist, in 1935.
 Cont..
Natural Ecosystem (Naturally made ecosystem) : These operate by themselves under natural condition.
1.Terrestrial Ecosystems
• Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:
– Forest Ecosystems
– Grassland Ecosystems
– Tundra Ecosystems
– Desert Ecosystem

1.Forest Ecosystem
• A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in coordination with the
abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the
major carbon sink.
2.Grassland Ecosystem
• In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna
grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
3.Tundra Ecosystem
• Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are
covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
4.Desert Ecosystem
• Desert ecosystems are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are
hot and the nights are cold.
 Cont..
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
• Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be
further divided into two types, namely:
a) Freshwater Ecosystem
b) Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
• The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the
marine ecosystem.
• It is of two types:
– Lotic (Running water bodies) : River
– Lentic(Standing water bodies):Pond, Lake
Marine Ecosystem
• The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial
salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.
 Cont..
• Artificial Ecosystem (Man - made ecosystem)
• These are maintained artificially by man. It is of two
types

• Terrestrial
– Crop Fields
– Garden
• Aquatic
– Aquarium
 Structure of the Ecosystem

• The structure of an ecosystem is characterized

by the organization of both biotic and abiotic
components.
• The structure of an ecosystem can be split into
two main components, namely:
1. Biotic Components
2. Abiotic Components
 Cont…
1.Biotic Components
• Biotic components refer to all life (living component) in an ecosystem.
Based on nutrition, biotic components can be categorized into
autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).
a. Producers
– It include all autotrophs such as plants, phytoplankton.
– Organism can produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis.
b. Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other
organisms for food. Consumers are further classified into primary
consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
– Primary consumers: are the organisms that depend on green plant for their
food. Example – Herbivore (Grasshopper)
– Secondary consumers: are the organisms that depend on primary consumers
(herbivore) for food. Example- Mice
 Cont…
– Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers
for food. Example – Snake.
– Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms
prey on tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at
the top of a food chain as they have no natural predators. Example- Eagle
• Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They
directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter.
Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in
recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.
2.Abiotic Components
• Abiotic components are the non-living component of an
ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight,
temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude etc.
Cont…
 Taxonomy
• Taxonomy (derived from Greek words, taxis-arrangement or
classification; nomos- law or rules)
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with identification,
nomenclature and classification of organism.
• The term taxonomy was first given by A.P. de Candle in 1813.
• Carolus Linnaeus is regarded as the father of taxonomy.
• Identification is recognisation of an unknown organism by
comparing with other already known organism or by use of
taxonomic keys / literature.
• Nomenclature is the process of naming identified organism
according to nomenclature system.
• Classification is the process of grouping the identified organism in
proper group such as division, class, order, family, genus, and
species.
 Binomial Nomenclature
• The system of naming the organism with two words scientific name; the genus and
species, is known as binomial nomenclature.
Rules of Binomial Nomenclature
1. Each organism consists of generic name (genus) and specific name (species).
2. The entire two-part name must be written in italics (or underlined when
handwritten).
3. The generic name (genus) is always written first and followed by specific name
(species).
4. The first letter of generic name (genus) must be capitalized.
5. The specific name (species) is never capitalized.
6. The name of the author who first identified the scientific name must be written after
species name in short or full name.
7. The new scientific name should not be similar with previously published name.
8. Scientific name should be taken from Greek or Latin language.
Scientific name of man – Homo sapiens
Frog – Rana tigrina
 Taxonomic categories and Hierarchy

• A taxonomic category is a rank in the

hierarchical classifications of organisms.
• There are seven taxonomic categories.
• kingdom (Highest rank) and species (Lowest
rank)
 Cont..
• The sequence of taxonomic categories (rank)
in classification is known as taxonomical
hierarchy.
• The sequences of taxonomic categories (rank)
are arranged in a descending sequence from
kingdom (highest rank) to species (lowest
rank).
Cont..
Hierarchy of taxonomic categories
Kingdom
Division (plant) / Phylum (animal)
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
@KD COF GS
 Algae:
• The term algae have been derived from the
Latin word alga means seaweed.
• The study of algae is called phycology or
algology.
 Characters:
• Mostly aquatic
• Body is thallus (Not divided into root, stem and leaves)
• Different color ,photosynthetic/autotrophic
• Stored food is starch
• Cell wall is cellulosic
• Non- flowering, non- vascular (without xylem and
phloem)
• Reproduction occurs by all 3 methods: vegetative,
asexual and sexual
• The body is covered by slimy mucilage
• Gametophyte is dominant in life cycle
 Classification of algae
1. Chlorophyceae:
• Commonly called Green algae
• Pigment -Ch.a and Ch.b
Example : Spirogyra , Ulothrix , Volvox
 Cont..
2. Phaeophyceae (brown algae):
• Commonly brown algae
• Pigment - Ch.a, Ch.c and Fucoxanthin
Example : Fucus , Laminaria
 Cont..
3. Rhodophyceae:
• Commonly called Red algae
• pigment - phycoerythrin and phycocyanin
 Spirogyra
• The genus Spirogyra is named after the unique
spiral chloroplast present in the cells of algae.
• Spirogyra is commonly known as “water silk or
pond silk”.
• Due to presence of mucilage they are slippery.
Hence spirogyra often called scum or water
silk.
 Bryophyta
• Bryophyta Greek word ‘Bryon’ meaning mosses
and ‘phyton’ meaning plants.
• The study of bryophytes is called bryology.
• Bryophytes are called “amphibians of the plant
kingdom” because they are terrestrial plants, but
require water to complete their life cycle at the
time of sexual reproduction.
• 1st land/terrestrial plant (complete land plant
Pteridophyta )
 General character:
• Non flowering and non- vascular plants / Atracheophyta (lack of xylem and
phloem)
• Known as amphibians of plant kingdom because water is essential for fertilization
• Plant body is gametophytic and sporophyte is totally dependent on
gametophyte.
• Thallus body and Has rhizoids (looks like roots but not root) for attachment to
substratum + absorption
• Reproduction occurs by vegetative, asexual and sexual method
• Oogamous type fertilization/sexual reproduction Male gamete motile
Female non motile Male
gamete ( ) and female gamete ( ) dissimilar both in shape and size
[ zygote (2n) formed after fertilization ]
• Sex organs are called antheridia /antheridium (male sex organ ) produce male
gamete (antherozoids) are coiled and biflagellated (can move /motile) and
archegonia /archegonium (female sex organ) produce female gamete (egg cell )
• Antheridium – club shaped , Archegonium – flask shaped
 Cont..
• Shows Alternation of generation phenomena
2 generation (100 % total life cycle )
• Gametophyte (haploid phase- n ) – produce
gamete dominant phase(80%) and independent
• Sporophyte (diploid phase – 2n) – produce
spore parasitic and dependent on gametophyte
for nourishment.
 Sporophyte
• Sporophyte is project out from the
gametophytic tissues
• Sporophyte is differentiated into foot ,seta and
capsule.
Sporogenous cell

Conducting tissue
Foot – absorb food from gametophyte
 Cont…
• Capsule मा Sporogenous cell
1. Spore mother cell – (4 haploid spores
• - tetrad ) by meiosis - Elater mother cell
swells by absorb water , rupture and
spores comes out

2.Elater mother cell (hygroscopic

nature)

• Spores germinate and develop into young

thallus – may be male and female thallus
(Dioecious )
 Archegonium (G- Girl )
• Female sex organ is Archegonia
• Archegonia is flask shaped structure
• Archegonia have basal swollen Venter and an
elongated upper part called neck
• The venture and neck are surrounded by one
layer thick sterile jacket cells
• Four to six neck canal cells and one Venter
canal cells is present
 Cont..
• Ventral and neck canal cell dissolve and
produce chemical that attract sperm.
• Fuse (Sperm n + Egg n ) zygote(2n) sporophyte
(formed inside Archegonium – female part)
(Sporophyte means sporogonium , Oospores means zygote )
Cont..
 Classification of bryophyta

A. Hepaticopsida (Liverworts): Examples: Marchantia

B. Anthocerotopsida (Hornworts):Examples: Anthoceros
C. Bryopsida (Mosses):Examples: Funaria, Polytrichum,
Sphagnum.
Pteridophyta
 Pteridophyta
• Pteridophytes (pteron - feather, phyton - plants)
are the non-flowering vascular plants. Hence
they may be defined as ‘vascular cryptogams.
 Characters of Pteridophyta
• Well differentiated into root, stem (rhizome) and leaves.
• Non flowering but vascular plant (bears xylem and phloem)
• Prefer to grow into in shady and moist area
• First land plant or root bearing plant
• Stem (rhizome) are under ground, branched and horizontal
• Young leaves are coiled at the tip called circinate vernation (ptyxis)
Bud Stage ma leaf
formation

• Leaves (fronds) are of two types (Tropophyll and Sporophyll )

• Sporophyte is dominant in life cycle
• Gametophyte of fern is called prothallus
• Sex organs are called antheridium and archegonium
• Antherozoids are coiled and multiflagellate
• Life cycle shows distinct alternation of generation
Life cycle of pteridophytes
Cont…..
 Important points
• Wall of sporangium consist – stomium and
Annulus
• Spore dispersal(comes out ) occur through
stomium (thin wall)
• Annulus (thick wall )– it absorb water from
outside, swells and wall rupture so it is
responsible for spore dispersal
 Sporophyll
• Sori (sorus – singular ), sporangium (sporangia – singular )
• Sori – collection of sporangium – bag of spore
• Ventral surface / Abaxial surface
 Bag of spore

Sori

collection of
sporangium
Fig : life cycle of fern
 Gymnosperm
•Flowering plants where flowers are replaced by cones
• Seeds are naked and do not produce fruit
• They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs and develop needle-
like leaves.
• Pollinated directly by the wind(anemophily )
• The seeds contain endosperm that stores food for the growth and
development of the emryo.
• These plants have vascular tissues
• The plant body is sporophyte and is differentiated into root, stem and
leaves.
• Plant may be Monoecious (Pinus) or Dioecious (Cycas).
• The life cycle shows alternation of generation. The Sporophytic phase is
dominant and gametophytic phase is highly reduced
• Double fertilization is absent
• Polyembrony is common
 Difference bet algae ,fungi ..
Characters Algae Bryophyte Pteridophyta Gymnosperm Angiosperm

Gametophyte (n) G is dominant G>S G=S (nearly S>G S>G

vs. Sporophyte over S equal ) but
(2n) S dominant

Embryo No/absent Yes Yes Yes Yes

Vascular tissue No No Yes Yes yes

Seed No NO NO Yes Yes

Fruit /ovary wall NO NO NO NO Yes

Sex organ Unicellular , non Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular Multicellular

jacketed and jacketed and and jacketed and jacketed
jacketed
 Classification of gymnosperm:

1) Cycadopsida Example: Cycas, Zamia.

2) Coniferopsida Example: Pinus
3) Gnetopsida Example: Gnetum, Ephedra
 Angiosperms:

All flower bearing plants are called angiosperms

Characters:
• The angiosperms may be annuals, biennials or
perennials.
• They may be herbs, shrubs or trees.
• They bare flowers for reproduction.
• They produce seed with fruit.
• Pollination occurs by wind , animal, birds etc.
• Sporophyte (2n ) is dominant in life cycle
• Dominant vegetation
• Heterosporous (microspores ,megaspores )
 Double fertilization
• The female gametophyte of angiosperms (flowering plants), also
known as embryo sac is a seven celled and eight nucleate
structure.
• This structure basically contains one haploid egg cell surrounded
by synergids towards the micropylar end, three cells forming
antipodals towards chalazal end and polar secondary nuclei
towards the center.
• During fertilization, the pollen tube enters embryo sac through
micropyle and releases two male gametes. Out of which, one male
gamete fuses with female gamete (egg cell) forming zygote and
the other fuses with polar nuclei forming endosperm. This is
called double fertilization as it involves fusion of two male
gametes.
 Double fertilization
• Double fertilization results in two significant events:
• Zygote Formation: The fusion of one male gamete
with the egg cell forms a diploid zygote. This zygote
undergoes mitosis and develops into the embryo,
which will grow into the new plant.
• Endosperm Formation: The fusion of the other male
gamete with two polar nuclei leads to the formation
of a triploid cell. This triploid cell develops into the
endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue that provides
essential nourishment to the developing embryo.
Cont….
Double fertilization
 Classification of angiosperm
• The angiosperms are classified into two main
groups,
i. Dicotyledons
ii. Monocotyledons
Difference between dicot and monocot
Dicot
Seeds contain two cotyledons.
They are often insects pollinated.
The leaves show reticulate venation.
They usually contain tap root systems
Cambium is present
Secondary growth occurs
Nodes and internodes are less distinct
Monocot
Seeds contain one cotyledon.
They are Often water pollinated
The leaves show parallel venation.
They usually contain fibrous root
No cambium
No secondary growth
Nodes and internodes are distinct
 Morphology of angiosperm
• Morphology: External feature of plant

Root stem leaf flower Fruit

 Root
✓Develop – Radicle
✓ Positively geotropic
✓ Negatively phototropic
Function : helps to stand erect
✓Parts of Roots
1. Root tip: Consists of large number of cell. It is
called zone of cell division.
2. Root hair: Mostly unicellular, absorbed water and
minerals
3. Root cap: The main function of root cap is to
protect zone of cell division ( penetrate the soil )
 Cont…
✓ There are two major types of root
a) Tap root b) Adventitious root
Modification of root Modification of tap root: When the tap
root changes its shape and size due to accumulation of
food materials is called as modified tap root.
According to their shape, they are classified into following
types.
1. Fusiform root: Radish
2. Napiform root: Turnip, Beetroot
3. Conical root: Carrot
 Virus
• The branch of biology that deals with the
viruses is called virology. The words virus is
derived from the Latin words (Latin, venom=
poisonous fluid) meaning poison.
• In other words virus are known as obligatory
parasites as they are fully depends on the
living organism (host) for their survival and
multiplication.
 Characteristics of Viruses
1. Extremely small infectious agents and can be
seen only with an electron microscope.
2. They have their own DNA or RNA or both as a
genetic material
3. They show respond to chemicals, heat and
temperature.
4. They need a host for their survival and
multiplication.
5. They undergo mutation like other living organism.
6. It can infect all living forms.
 Nature of viruses
They exhibit the properties of both living and nonliving
things.
Living characteristic of viruses
1. Viruses can grow and reproduce within the host cells.
2. They can mutate and change characteristics.
3. They have their own DNA or RNA or both.
4. They have ability of reproduction
5. They are capable of transmitting disease.
6. They respond to heat, chemicals and radiation.
 Nonliving characteristic of Viruses
1. Acellular (lack of cell organelles).
2. They do not respire.
3. They need a host for their survival and
multiplication.
4. They can be stored and they come to life only
when injected inside a living cell
 Classification of viruses

They are classified on the basic of type of host and genetic material.
On the basic of type of host they are as,
1. Zoophages: The virus which infect animal. Example - influenza virus,
rabies virus, polio virus, and corona virus etc.
2. Phytophages: The virus which infect plant.eg tobacco mosaic virus
(TMV), and potato virus (TV),
3. Bacteriophages: The viruses which infect bacteria are called
bacteriophage.
On the basic of nucleic acids they are as
1. DNA virus: The virus which contain DNA as a genetic material. Ex-
bacteriophage, animal virus
2. RNA virus: The virus which contain RNA as a genetic material. Ex - plant
virus
3. DNA - RNA viruses: The virus which contain both RNA and DNA as a
genetic material. Ex - Leuko virus
TAXIS
 Plant tissue culture
• Concept of cellular totipotency was established by
Haberlandt.
• Father of plant tissue culture : Haberlandt
• Plant Tissue Culture: It is a technique of growing cells,
tissues and organs in an artificially prepared nutrient
medium under aseptic conditions. It is applied in production
of disease free plants, improvement of plant varieties, etc.
• Cellular totipotency: It is the ability is of undifferentiated
plant tissues to differentiate into functional plants when
cultured in vitro conditions.
• Explant: Part of plant used in plant tissue culture.
• Sterilization : To keep the plant cells free from microbes