Chater 2 Transformers

Introduction to
Electrical Machines
ECEG-3203
Chapter 2
Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Transformers

Presentation Outline
 Construction features
 Principles of Operation
 Ideal and Practical Models
 Equivalent Circuit
 Transformer Tests
 Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
Three Phase Transformers and Group Connection
 Parallel Operation of Transformers
 per unit analysis

1. Construction of Transformers
 A transformer is an electrical device which is used to transform
either current or voltage level.
 The basic components of a transformer are
 Primary coil – the coil connected
to the incoming (supply) voltage.
 Secondary coil – the coil connected
to a load.
 Laminated iron core – creates magnetic coupling between
the two coils
 There is no electrical connection between the two coils, which
are constructed using insulated wire.
 Step-up transformer increases the output voltage - there are
more turns on the secondary than on the primary.
 Step-down transformer decreases the output voltage - there are
fewer turns on the secondary than on the primary.

Construction ...
 Depending on how thier windings are placed,
core types
There are two types of transformers
 Core type transformer
shell types
 Shell type transformer

2. Principles of Operation
The basic principle behind the operation of transformers is electro-
magnetic induction.
When the primary coil of the transformer is connected to a supply
Voltage, a magnetic flux (φ) starts to flow in the core. According to
faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, a voltage will be induced
in the primary coil of the transformer

Principles of Operation ...
The ratio of the number of turns of the primary winding
(N1)and the secondary winding (N2) is called turn ratio or
ratio of transformation(a).
The turn ratio (a) is related to the transformer’s winding
voltage and current as
N1 v1 I 2
 
N 2 v2 I1
Where
N1 = number of turns in the primary

N2 = number of turns in the secondary
v1 = voltage of the primary
v2 = voltage of the secondary
I1 = current in the primary
I2 = current in the secondary
3. Transformers with noload
Neglecting the primary coil flux
leakage,the electrical equation in the
primary terminal of the transformer is
The waveforms of the flux and voltage are nearly sinusoidal
t
The rms value of the induced voltage hence is
The noload resistance drop is very small and the counter emf (e1)
is very nearly equal to the applied voltage (V1)

Transformers with no-load
The excitation current (iφ) has two components
im  I  sin  c
ic  I  cos  c
The core loss PC is therefore

4. Ideal transformer on load
When a time varying excitation is applied to the primary side,
a voltage will be induced both in the primary and seconday coils.
If the winding resistances are negligble, the terminal voltage of
the transformer will be equal to the induced voltage of the coils
i.e
and
The direction of the secondary current is opposite to the direction
shown in the figure due to Lentz’s law.
The relation between the turn ratio(a),
the terminal voltages and winding
currents is
N1 v1 I 2
 
N 2 v2 I1

 transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other
is called referring the impedance to the other side
therefore

5. Equivalent circuit of transformers
To study the characterstics and performance of transformers,
it is necessary to draw equivalent circuit containing the
parameters of the transformer.
R1, R2 - resistances of the
primary and secondary coils
Xl1, Xl2 - reactances of the
primary and secondary coils
RC, Xm magnetizing resistance and reactance of the core material

respectively
,
I2 is component of the primary current which would exactly
counteract the mmf due to the secondary current.

Equivalent circuit of transformers …
We can collect these parameters to one side of the

transformer using the transformation equation.
Where a is a transformation ratio gven by
N1
a
N2
The side the shunt branch parameters should be placed is
determined by to which side of the transformer is the measurment
conducted.

Equivalent T and Cantilever circuits
The equivalent circuit formed by moving the series parameters to one
side of the transformer is called equivalent T circuit.
To make computation easier, we can move the shunt branches to one
side and add the series parameters together. This form of equivalent
circuit is called cantilever circuit.
equivalet T circuit of transformer cantilever circuits of transformer
To a higher degree of approximation, the shunt parameters can be

neglected and the transformer can be entirely represented by the series
parameters only.

Phasor diagram of a transformer
The equivalent circuit parameters can alternatively be
calculated using a phasor diagram.
Phasor diagram corresponding

to the previous slide

Example 1
A 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz distribution transformer has a
leakage impedance of 0.72 +j0.92 Ω in the high-voltage winding
and 0.0070 + j0.0090 Ω in the low-voltage winding. At rated
voltage and frequency, the impedance ZФ of the shunt branch
(equal to the impedance of Rc and j Xm in parallel) accounting for
the exciting current is 6.32 + j43.7 Ω when viewed from the low-
voltage side.
Draw the equivalent circuit referred to
(a) the high-voltage side and
(b) the low-voltage side, and label the impedances numerically.
(c) If 2400 V rms is applied to the high-voltage side of the
transformer, calculate the magnitude of the current into the
magnetizing impedance ZФ.

Example 2
Consider the equivalent T circuit of the 50-kVA, 2400:240 V
distribution transformer of example 1 in which the
impedances are referred to the high-voltage side.
(a) Draw the cantilever equivalent circuit with the shunt
branch at the high-voltage terminal, calculate and label
Req and Xeq.
(b) With the low-voltage terminal open-circuit and 2400 V
applied to the high-voltage terminal, calculate the
voltage at the low-voltage terminal as predicted by each
equivalent circuit.

6. Transformer test
To determine the series and shunt parameters of a transformer,
two types of expermental tests are usually carried out.
 Open circuit test – performed by connecting one side of the
transformer to a supply voltage and
leaving the other side open.
 Short circuit test – performed by connecting one side of the
transformer to a supply voltage and short
circuiting the other winding.
The power measured during open circuit test represents the core
loss due to the impedance of the core.
The power measured during short circuit test represents the
copper loss (resistive loss) due to the impedance of the windings

6.1 No load (open circuit) test
It is used to determine the shunt parameters of the equivalent
circuit, Lm (Xm)and Rc
Usually performed on the low voltage side.
The test is performed at rated voltage and frequency
under no load

6.2 short circuit test
It is used to determine the series parameters of the equivalent
circuit Lsc (Xeq) and Rsc(Req)
Usually performed on the high voltage side.
This test is performed at reduced voltage (5 – 10 % of the rated
voltage) and at rated frequency with the output of the low
voltage winding short circuited such that rated current flows on
the high voltage side.

6.3 Polarity test
Terminals of different windings are of same polarity if
currents entering (or leaving) them produce flux in the
same direction in the core.
Terminals labeled with a dot have similar polarity
To check polarity

Example 3
With the instruments located on the high-voltage side and the
low-voltage side short-circuited, the short-circuit test readings
for the 50-kVA 2400:240-V transformer of Example 1 are 48 V,
20.8 A, and 617 W.
An open-circuit test with the low-voltage side energized gives
instrument readings on that side of 240 V, 5.41 A, and 186 W.
Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer and label the
Parameters
(a) referred to the high voltage side
(b) referred to the low voltage side

Example 4
A 50-MVA, 60-Hz single-phase transformer has a voltage rating

of 8.0-kV:78-kV. An open-circuit test is conducted from the
low-voltage side, and the corresponding instrument readings
are 8.0 kV, 62.1 A, and 206 kW. Similarly, a short-circuit test
from the low-voltage side gives readings of 674 V, 6.25 kA, and
187 kW.
(a) Calculate the equivalent series resistance and reactance of
the transformer as referred to the low-voltage terminals.
(b) Calculate the equivalent series impedance of the
transformer as referred to the high-voltage terminals.
(c) Making appropriate approximations, draw a T equivalent
circuit for the transformer reffered to the LV side.

Voltage Regulation of transformers
The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the

change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full
load and is usually expressed as a percentage of the full-load
value.
A low value indicates that load variations on the secondary of
the transformer will not significantly affect the magnitude of
the voltage being supplied to the load.
It is calculated under the assumption that the primary
voltage remains constant as the load is removed from the
transformer secondary.
| vnoload |  | vload |
 x100
| vload |
Vno-load =RMS voltage across the load terminals without load
Vload = RMS voltage across the load terminals with a specified
load

Cont’d…
Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor
Say lagging power factor of the load is cosθ2, that means angle
between secondary current and voltage is θ2.
“+” for lagging power factor

“-” for leading power factor
Efficiency of transformers
The efficiency of a transformer is calculated as
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
Losses  V2 I 2Cos 2
V2 I 2Cos 2
 2 2 2
*100
V1 / Rc1  I1 R1  I 2 R2  V2 I 2Cos 2
V2 I 2Cos 2
 2 2
*100
V1 / Rc1  I 2 Req 2  V2 I 2Cos 2
Cos 2 = load power factor

Condition for maximum efficiency
The efficiency varies with two independent quantities;

current and power factor.
Thus at any particular power factor, the efficiency is
maximum if core loss = copper loss. This can be
obtained by differentiating the expression of efficiency
with respect to I2 assuming power factor, and all the
voltages constant.
At any particular I2 maximum efficiency happens at unity
power factor.
This can be obtained by differentiating the expression of
efficiency with respect to power factor, and assuming I2
and all the voltages constant.
So maximum efficiency happens at unity power factor
and when core loss = copper loss

Cont’d…
V2 I 2Cos 2
 *100
2 Pcu  V2 I 2Cos 2

Cont’d…
If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at which two
losses would be equal (i.e. corresponding to maximum efficiency) is
given by
Output KVA corresponding

to maximum efficiency

Maximum efficiency
Maximum efficiency point
100 pf=1
pf= 0.8
pf= 0.6

At this load current
core loss = copper loss
0
% full load current

Fig. Variations of efficiency with power factor at different loading

Example 5
1. For the transformer described in example 3, determine the

efficiency and voltage regulation at full load, 0.80 power
factor lagging.
2. Determine the efficiency and voltage regulation of the
transformer in example 4 if the transformer operates at
full load 0.9 power factor lagging

Auto transformer
A two winding transformer can also be connected as an auto
transformer.
Connection as an auto transformer has the following advantages
 Lower leakage
 Lower losses
 Lower magnetizing current
 Increase kVA rating
When the transformer in figure

2.17 (a) is connected as an
auto transformer. The turn
ratio will be
N1  N 2
n
N1

Example 6
A 2400:240-V 50-kVA transformer is connected as an
autotransformer, as shown in the figure. Winding ab is the 240-V
winding and bc is the 2400-V winding.
a) Compute the voltage ratings of the high- and low-voltage sides,
respectively, for this autotransformer connection.
b) Compute the kVA rating as an autotransformer.
c) If the losses are similar to the

transformer in example 3,
compute the full-load efficiency
as an autotransformer operating
with a rated load of 0.80 power
factor lagging.

Three phase transformers
Three phase transformers can be constructed in two forms.
1. Three phase transformer bank - by connecting three
identical single phase transformers.
2. A single three phase transformer having all the six
windings on a single multileg core.
Advantages of three-phase transformers over connections of
three single-phase transformers are that they cost less, weigh
less, require less floor space, and have somewhat higher
efficiency.
The bank of three single phase transformer on the other hand
has the advantage of easy maintenance and continued
operation (if one phase is out of service due to fault, the
transformer will continue operating as two single phase
transformers – this is called open delta if transformer is
connected as delta )

Three phase transformer bank Single three phase transformer
Fig. Three phase transformer connection

Three phase transformers can be connected in one of the
following types.
Fig Two winding, three phase transformers

Applications:of Delta star connections
Commonly used in a step-up transformer:As for example, at the beginning of a HT
transmission line. In this case neutral point is stable and will not float in case of
unbalanced loading. There is no distortion of flux because existence of a Δ -connection
allows a path for the third-harmonic components. The line voltage ratio is √3 times of
transformer turn-ratio and the secondary voltage leads the primary one by 30°. In recent
years, this arrangement has become very popular for distribution system as it provides 3-
Ø, 4-wire system.
Commonly used in commercial, industrial, and high-density residential locations: To
supply three-phase distribution systems. An example would be a distribution transformer
with a delta primary, running on three 11kV phases with no neutral or earth required, and
a star (or wye) secondary providing a 3-phase supply at 400 V, with the domestic voltage
of 230 available between each phase and an earthed neutral point.
Used as Generator Transformer:The ∆-Y transformer connection is used universally for
connecting generators to transmission systems because of two very important reasons.
First of all, generators are usually equipped with sensitive ground fault relay protection.
The ∆-Y transformer is a source of ground currents for loads and faults on the
transmission system, yet the generator ground fault protection is completely isolated from
ground currents on the primary side of the transformer. Second, rotating machines can
literally be

Application: Star - delta
It is commonly employed for power supply transformers.
This type of connection is commonly employed at the substation end of the
transmission line. The main use with this connection is to step down the
voltage. The neutral available on the primary side is grounded. It can be seen
that there is phase difference of 30° between primary and secondary line
voltages.
Commonly used in a step-down transformer, Y connection on the HV side
reduces insulation costs the neutral point on the HV side can be grounded,
stable with respect to unbalanced loads. As for example, at the end of a
transmission line. The neutral of the primary winding is earthed. In this system,
line voltage ratio is 1/√3 Times of transformer turn-ratio and secondary voltage
lags behind primary voltage by 30°. Also third harmonic currents flow in the to
give a sinusoidal flux.

Fig transformer connection configurations

Open delta (V-V) connection
 Open delta connection can be used when one of the transformers
in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until
the faulty transformer is repaired or replaced.
 It can also be used for small three phase loads where installation
of full three transformer bank is un-necessary.
 The total load carrying capacity of open delta connection is
57.7% than that would be for delta-delta connection.

 Circuit computations involving three-phase
transformer banks under balanced conditions can be
made by dealing with only one of the transformers
or phases and applying the phase displacements
associated with a three-phase system.
 In dealing with Y-Δ or Δ -Y banks, all quantities can
be referred to the Y-connected side. In dealing with
Δ - Δ banks in series with transmission lines, it is
convenient to replace the Δ -connected impedances
of the transformers by equivalent Y-connected
impedances.
 For a balanced Δ connected impedance, the
equivalent Y impedance is given by
1
ZY  Z 
3
Vector groups
Definition:
 The transformer vector group show the phase difference
between the primary and secondary sides of the transformer.
 It also determines the high voltage and low voltage windings
arrangement of three phase transformers.

Winding connection designations:
D=Delta, Y=Star, N=Neutral
First Symbol: for High Voltage: Always capital letters.
Second Symbol: for Low voltage: Always Small letters.
d=Delta, y=Star, n=Neutral.
Third Symbol: Phase displacement expressed as
the clock hour number (1,6,11)
 Example – Dyn11
 Transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D)
 A star connected secondary (y) with the star point brought out
(n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading (11).
•The vector for the high voltage winding is taken as the reference
vector. Displacement of the vectors of other windings from the
reference vector, with anticlockwise rotation, is represented by the
use of clock hour figure.
Cont’d…
•Digit 0 =0° that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor

•Digit 1 =30° lagging (LV lags HV with 30°) because rotation
is anti-clockwise.
•Digit 11 = 330° lagging or 30° leading (LV leads HV with 30°)
•Digit 5 = 150° lagging (LV lags HV with 150°)
•Digit 6 = 180° lagging (LV lags HV with 180°)
The phase-bushings on a three phase transformer are marked either

ABC, UVW or 123 (HV-side capital , LV-side small letters).

Phase groups

Example 7
Three single-phase, 50-kVA 2400:240-V transformers, each
identical with that of example 3, are connected Y-Δ in a three-
phase 150-kVA bank to step down the voltage at the load end of a
feeder whose impedance is 0.15 + j 1.00 Ω/phase. The voltage at
the sending end of the feeder is 4160 V line-to-line. On their
secondary sides, the transformers supply a balanced three-phase
load through a feeder whose impedance is 0.0005 + j0.0020
Ω/phase.
Find the line-to-line voltage at the load when the load draws rated
current from the transformers at a power factor of 0.80 lagging.

Parallel operation
It is sometimes important to connect two transformers in parallel than
using a single large transformer.
Parallel operation is preferable in terms of cost and maintenance aspects
but a single transformer can be better if space is a premium.
The following points must be carefully considered for parallel operation.
1. Transformers should be connected with the right polarity tigether.
2. Three phase transformers must be connected in a proper phase sequence. They
must have zero relative phase displacement on the secondary sides. For example Y
- Yand Δ – Y transformers can not be paralleled as thier secondary voltage has
300 phase shift. However, transformers with phase shift of 30 0 and - 300 can be
paralleled by reversing the phase sequence of one of the transformers.
3. Transformers must have the same voltage ratio to avoid
circulating currents that will damage insulations.
4. The ratio of the equivalent reactance to the equivalent
impedances should be the same for all transformers. If all
transformers have similar ratio, they will share the total load
current proportional to thier rating. If not, one transformer may
be loaded improporationally.

Necessity of Parallel Operation of Transformers
Why parallel operation of transformers is needed?
Increased Load: When load is increased and it exceeds the capacity of
existing transformer, another transformer may be connected in parallel with
the existing transformer to supply the increased load.
Non-availability of large transformer: If a large transformer is not available
which can meet the total requirement of load, two or more small
transformers can be connected in parallel to increase the capacity.
Increased reliability: If multiple transformers are running in parallel, and a
fault occurs in one transformer, then the other parallel transformers still
continue to serve the load. And the faulty transformer can be taken out for
the maintenance.
Transportation is easier for small transformers: If installation site is located
far away, then transportation of smaller units is easier and may be
economical.

Per unit analysis
A key problem in analyzing power systems is the large number
of transformers. It would be very difficult to continually have to
refer impedances to the different sides of the transformers
This problem is avoided by a normalization of all variables called
per unit analysis.
actual quantity
quantity in per unit 
base value of quantity
Per unit analysis has the following advantages
 It avoids bulky calculations as the calculation parameters are
normalized.
 Per unit values have no unit so avoids error due to unit
conversion.
 When transformer equivalent circuit is expressed in per unit
it’s turn ratio will be one. This eliminates the need to
transform impedances from one side to another.

Per unit analysis
The value of VAbase must be the same over the entire system
under analysis. Usually the rated values of the transformer are
taken as base values.
For a single-phase system,
Pbase, Qbase, VAbase = VbaseIbase
Rbase, Xbase, Zbase = Vbase/Ibase
The procedure for per unit analysis can be summarized as

Example
The exciting current measured on the low-voltage side of a
50-kVA, 2400:240-V transformer is 5.41 A. Its equivalent
impedance referred to the high-voltage side is 1.42 + j 1.82
Ω. Using the transformer rating as the base, express in per
unit on the low- and high-voltage sides
(a) the exciting current and
(b) the equivalent impedance.
Problem:
A 15-kVA 120:460-V transformer has an equivalent series
impedance of 0.018 + j0.042 per unit. Calculate the
equivalent series impedance in ohms
a) referred to the low-voltage side and
b) referred to the high-voltage side.
Ans : ZLV = 0.017 + j0.040 Ω and ZHV = 0.25 + j0.60 Ω

Transformer name plate

LV side
notation
Transformer
Arching horn
Bushings

Transformer
nameplate

Thermometer

Conservator Tank

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Introduction to

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

N1 = number of turns in the primary

The waveforms of the flux and voltage are nearly sinusoidal

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

RC, Xm magnetizing resistance and reactance of the core material

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

We can collect these parameters to one side of the

Where a is a transformation ratio gven by

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

equivalet T circuit of transformer cantilever circuits of transformer

To a higher degree of approximation, the shunt parameters can be

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Phasor diagram corresponding

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

A 50-MVA, 60-Hz single-phase transformer has a voltage rating

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

“+” for lagging power factor

Cos 2 = load power factor

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

The efficiency varies with two independent quantities;

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Output KVA corresponding

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Maximum efficiency point

% full load current

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

1. For the transformer described in example 3, determine the

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When the transformer in figure

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c) If the losses are similar to the

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Fig. Three phase transformer connection

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Fig Two winding, three phase transformers

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Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans

Source: “Electrical Machinery”, A.E. Fitzgerald, Umans