aviation science fundamentals

Engineer Khaled Al Fawaeer

 physics
Chapter 6
2.4 optics (light)
 Mirrors

• The ordinary household mirror is a sheet of flat

glass, “silvered‟ on the back with a layer of metal
paint, which is then protected by a coat of
ordinary paint.

• Light passes through the glass and is reflected by

the silvering.

*The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Source and image in a mirror Mirrors produce a „virtual(‫ ‟)وهمي‬image
 Reflecting prisms (‫)انعكاسات الضوء في المنشور‬
• A glass reflecting prism provides a much cheaper
and more practical plane mirror by using the effect
of total internal reflection.

• A prism will allow light to undergo total internal

reflection whereas a mirror allows light to both
reflect and refract (‫ )ينكسر‬.

• So for a prism, 100% of the light is reflected , but

for a mirror, only about 95% of the light is
reflected.
 Reflecting prisms (‫)انعكاسات الضوء في المنشور‬
• a prism will produce a brighter image due to the
greater percent of light being reflected.

• A prism is often used as a mirror.

• Angle ‘a’ must be greater than the critical angle ‘c’

of the material used.

• Reflection prisms are used in many optical devices

including binoculars (‫)منظار‬, camera viewfinders
(‫ )عدسة الكاميرا‬and theodolites (‫)جهاز قياس الزوايا‬.
A reflecting prism
Reflecting prism used in binoculars
 Spherical mirrors
• Spherical mirrors can be thought of as a portion of
a sphere which was sliced (‫ )مقطوعه‬away and then
silvered on one of the sides to form a reflecting
surface.(‫)سطوح عاكسه‬

• Concave mirrors (‫ )المقعره‬were silvered on the

inside of the sphere.

• convex mirrors ((‫ المحدبه‬were silvered on the

outside of the sphere.
 Concave spherical mirrors (‫)المقعره‬
• The follow describes the geometry of a concave
mirror:
• If a concave mirror is thought of as being a
slice(‫ )جزء‬of a sphere, then there would be a line
passing through the centre of the sphere and
attaching to the mirror in the exact centre of the
mirror, this line is known as the principal axis.

• The point in the Centre of sphere from which the

mirror was sliced is known as the Centre of
curvature and is denoted by the letter C.
 Concave spherical mirrors(‫)المقعره‬
• The point on the mirror's surface where the principal axis
meets the mirror is known as the vertex (‫)القمه‬and is
denoted by the letter A.

• The vertex is the geometric centre of the mirror. It is

sometimes known as the “pole‟.

• Midway between the vertex and the centre of curvature is a

point known as the focal point (‫ )البؤرة‬the focal point is
 Concave spherical mirrors(‫)المقعره‬
• The distance from the vertex to the centre of curvature is
known as the radius of curvature (abbreviated by ‘R’).

• The radius of curvature is the radius of the sphere from

which the mirror was cut.
• Finally, the distance from the mirror to the focal point is
known as the focal length (abbreviated by ‘ƒ’). (‫)البعد البؤري‬
• The focal length would be one-half the radius of curvature,
i.e. ƒ = ½R
 Dimensions of a concave mirror

All light rays traveling

parallel to the principal axis
reflected from the concave
mirror must pass through
the focal point
 Concave spherical mirrors
• Two rules can be surmised (‫ تفترض‬/ ‫ )تعتمد‬regarding
concave mirrors

1. Any incident ray (‫ )األشعة الساقطة‬traveling parallel to

the principal axis on the way to the mirror will
pass through the focal point upon reflection.

2. Any incident ray passing through the focal point

on the way to the mirror will travel parallel to the
principal axis upon reflection
 Concave spherical mirrors
• Upright ‫مستو‬
• inverted ‫مقلوب‬
• Enlarged ‫مكبره‬
• diminished ‫مصغره‬
• real ‫حقيقي‬
• Virtual ‫وهمي‬

• The type of image formed by of a concave mirror

depend on where the object is placed.
Case 1: The object is located beyond C (centre of curvature)
• When the object is located at a location beyond (‫ )خلف‬the centre of curvature, the
image will always be located somewhere between the centre of curvature and the
focal point.

• The image will be located in the specified region, in this case, the image will be
inverted, if the object is right side up, then the image is upside down.

• The image is diminished in size; in, the image dimensions are smaller than
the object dimensions.

• The image is a real image. Light rays actually converge at the image
 Case 2: The object is located at C
• When the object is located at the center of curvature, the
image will also be located at the center of curvature.
• In this case, the image will be inverted

• The image will be of equal size to the object dimensions.

The image is a real image.
• Light rays actually converge at the image location.
 Case 3: The object is located between C and F
• When the object is located in front of the centre of curvature, the
image will be located beyond ( ‫ )َو َر اَء‬the centre of curvature.

• Regardless of exactly where the object is located between C and F,

the image will be located somewhere beyond the centre of
curvature.

• In this case, the image will be inverted , enlarged, real

 Case 4: The object is located at F
• When the object is located at the focal point, no
image is formed.

• Light rays from the same point on the object will

reflect off the mirror and neither converge nor
diverge.
• After reflecting, the light rays are traveling parallel to
each other and do not result in the formation of an
 Case 5: The object is located in front of F
• When the object is located at a location inside the focal
point, the image will always be located somewhere on the
opposite side of the mirror.

Note: All inverted

images are “real” images

• Regardless of exactly where in front of F the object is

located, the image will always be located behind the mirror.
In this case, the image will be an upright, enlarged, virtual
 Image size (magnification) / ‫التكبير‬
• As the object distance decreases, the image distance
increases; meanwhile, the image height increases.

• At the centre of curvature, the object distance equals

the image distance and the object height equals the
image height.

• As the object distance approaches one focal length, the

image distance and image height approaches infinity.

• The magnification equation relates the ratio of the

image distance and object distance to the ratio of the
image height (hi) and object height (ho).
 Convex spherical mirrors (‫)المحدبه‬
• Convex mirrors are used to diminish (‫ )تصِّغ ر‬the image,
and therefore fit more detail into the mirror (such as
car rear-view mirrors).

• The focal point is at the half radius point (but behind

the mirror).

• The image is always virtual, upright and

diminished in size.

• The virtual image that is formed will appear smaller

and closer to the mirror than the object.
Convex mirror produces a virtual, diminished and upright image
 Spherical aberration / ‫أإلنحراف‬
• The term “aberration” means a departure from the expected or
proper course.

• Spherical mirrors have an aberration.

• There is an intrinsic (‫ )جوهري‬defect with any mirror that takes on

the shape of a sphere.

• This defect prohibits the mirror from focusing all the incident
light from the same location on an object to a precise point.
• ‫جميع المرايا الكرويه فيها عيب تشتيت الضوء بحيث ال تركز الضوء في نقطة‬
‫تجميع وبالتالي فالصوره تظهر ضبابية‬
• The result is the images of objects as seen in spherical mirrors
are often blurry (‫ ) ضبابية‬.
 Misfocus of light rays reflected
from a spherical mirror causing
a “spherical aberration”

Cause and correction of spherical aberration

 Lenses Converging (‫( )تقاربي‬convex) lens (‫)محدبه‬
• Converging (‫( )تقاربي‬convex) lens (‫)محدبه‬We are
familiar with convex glass lenses.

• They have equal surfaces that we can think of as parts

of a sphere, and are called spherical (or simple) lenses.

• The figure below shows what happens to the wave-

fronts of light waves when they pass through a simple
glass lens.

• A lens like this, which alters (‫ ) تغير‬a plane wave front to

make the light waves pass through a point, or focus, is
called a converging or positive lens.
Parallel and point-source light rays being “focused” by a lens
 Lenses
• The wavelengths of the light are shorter after they
pass across the air–glass boundary.

• This is because the speed of the waves is less in

glass than in air, and the waves don't go as far in
each period of the wave motion.

• This drop in speed causes refraction / ‫االنكسار‬,

meaning that the light changes direction
wherever the wave front is not parallel to the
boundary.
 Position and size of the image
• The rays are assumed (‫ )من المفترض‬to change
direction at a line that represents a plane in the
centre of the lens.

• The object could be anything, but by convention

(‫ )تجميع‬it is drawn simply as an arrow.

• Any ray that is parallel to the principal axis of the

lens is refracted to pass through the principal
focus, F.
 Lenses Converging (‫( )تقاربي‬convex) lens (‫)محدبه‬
• If an object is placed between
the lens and its focus, the viewer on
the other side of the lens sees an
enlarged image of the object at a
Distance greater than the distance of
the actual object from it.

But if the object is placed at

a distance from the lens that
exceeds its focal length, the
image is formed on the far
side of the lens, the image is
larger than the object, the
image is said to be real and
inverted.
Virtual and real images, depending on whether the object is
in front of, or behind, the focal point
 Diverging (concave) lens(‫)المقعرة‬
• The figure shows a lens with concave spherical surfaces
and what happens to parallel light rays when they pass
through it.

• The rays are refracted so that they seem to diverge from a

single point, F, this point is the principal focus of a
diverging lens.

• As light doesn't actually come from the point, or pass

through it, it is a virtual.‫) )افتراضية أو وهمية‬
Parallel light entering a concave lens
 concave lens
• A concave lens is used to diminished the image,
where the concave lens creates an upright,
diminished image of the object on the same side
of the object
 The power of a lens
• In optics, lenses are usually described in terms of
their power.
• The more powerful the lens, the closer to the lens
is the image that the lens forms of a distant
object.
• The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of
its focal (‫ )البعد البؤري‬length measured in meters:

• The unit of power is called the diopter, symbol D,

Adding and subtracting lens powers
 Lens dispersion and chromatic aberration
((‫تشتت العدسة واإلنحراف الوني‬

• The term “aberration” means a departure from the

expected or proper course.((‫الخروج عن المسار الصحيح‬

• Dispersion means that red light is brought to a focus

further away from a positive lens than blue light,
this blurs (‫ )يطمس‬images, an effect called chromatic
aberration.

• Newton solved the problem for telescopes by

designing one in which the light was focused by a
curved mirror.
 Lens dispersion and chromatic aberration
• An achromatic lens can be made - a combined
double-lens using two different types of glass (e.g.
crown and flint glass).

• One lens is positive and stronger than the other,

negative, lens.

• The overall combination is positive, but the

negative lens is made from a more dispersive type
of glass so that the total dispersion of the
combination can be made very small.
The end