aviation science fundamentals

Engineer Khaled Al Fawaeer

 physics
Chapter 2
1.1mechanics
 Mass, force and weight
• Mass: (symbolized ‘m’)
is a dimensionless‫))غير متجهه‬quantity representing
the amount of matter in a particle or object.
• The standard unit of mass in the International
System (SI) is the kilogram (kg), and the slug in
the imperial system.
1 slug = 14.59 kilogram
• In physics, mass is a property of a physical body
(‫ الملموس‬/‫)الجسم المادي‬.
• also It is a measure of an object's resistance to
acceleration when a force is applied.
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 Force
• The physicist uses the word “force” to describe
any push or pull.
• A force is one kind of vector.
• A vector is a quantity that has both size and
direction.
• A force has a certain magnitud (‫ )مقدار‬or size.
• The units in which force are measured are the
pound (lb) or newton (N).
• The relationship between the metric and
imperial units is given by the conversion factor:
1 lb = 4.448 N
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 Weight
• A weight is one kind of force.

• It is defined as the gravitational pull of the earth

on a given body.

• The direction of this force is toward the

geometrical center of the earth.

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 Mass conversions

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 Moments, couples and torque (‫)العزم‬
Lever arms and moments
• The distance of any object from the fulcrum (‫نقطة‬
‫)إرتكاز‬is called the “lever arm”.

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 Moments, couples and torque
Lever arms (‫ )ذراع الرافعه‬and moments (‫)عزم‬
• The lever arm multiplied by the weight (or mass)
of the object is its turning effect about the
fulcrum(‫)نقطة إرتكاز‬.
• This turning effect is known as the “moment”.
• The moment of a force about a point is the
product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the point to the line of action of
the force.

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 Moments, couples and torque
Moment = Fd
• Where;
• F = the force in newtons (N) or pounds (lb)
• d = perpendicular distance in metres (m) or feet
(ft)
• Moments are expressed in lbs.ft or Newton meters
and the direction must be specified, clockwise (+)
or anticlockwise (-), positive or negative.

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 Example 1
• A 10 N force acts on a spanner, at a perpendicular
distance of 100 mm from the center of the nut
and bolt. What is the moment M1 applied to the
nut and bolt?
Moment = Fd
= 10 x 100 = 1,000 Nm )Newton metres (
• What would the moment (M2) be if the spanner
was 3 times longer?
Moment = Fd
= 10 x 300 = 3,000 Nm
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 The principle of moments
• When an object is in equilibrium:
sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments
• The simple see-saw is a good example.
• A small weight at a large distance can be balanced
by a large weight at a small distance.
W1 x d1 = W2 x d2

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 Example 2
Moment = Force x distance
Sum of anticlockwise moments = Sum of
M = Fd clockwise moments

Example 1
Moment = Force x distance
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Example 3
In the figure shown below, we can write an
equilibrium formula as follows:
sum of anticlockwise moments= sum of clockwise moments
W1 x d1 = W2 x d2
3 lb x 10" = 6 lbs x 5"
30 lb ins = 30 lb ins

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• Example 4 In the figure shown below, we can write
an equilibrium formula, and determine the
necessary size of the weight required (X) to be
placed at 7.5" in order to balance the system, as
follows:
sum of anticlockwise moments= sum of clockwise
moments
(W1 x d1) = (W2 x d2) + (W3 x d3)
3 x 10 lb ins = (3 x 5) lb ins + (X x 7.5”)
30 – 15 = 7.5X
= 15 / 7.5
X = 2 lbs
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 Couples
• A “couple” is a pair of forces of magnitude F that
are equal and opposite but applied at points
separated by a distance d perpendicular to the
forces.

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 Couples cont.
• The force applied at one end of the wrench
handle, multiplied by the distance to the centre
of rotation is just half of the torque felt at the tap
itself, since there is an equal torque applied at
the other wrench handle.
• The moment (or torque) of a couple is calculated
by multiplying the size of one of the force (F) by
the perpendicular distance between the two
forces (d).
• E.g. a steering wheel in a car; Moment of Couple
= Fd
 Torque wrenches
• We define torque as the force (F) applied to a
body that is pivoted at a point (0) multiplied by
the distance from the pivot point to the place
where the force is applied and multiplied by the
sin of the angle between r and F.

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 Torque wrenches cont.
• We will use the Greek letter tau (Ʈ) for torque.
• The distance mentioned in the preceding
sentence is called the lever arm and symbolized by
the letter d.
The defining equation is: Ʈ = Fd sin ɵ
• ɵ ‫ق ف جتا‬

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 Extensions
• A typical beam type torque wrench has an extension spanner
attached.
• If this combination is used to torque load a fastener, then the
following formula should be used to calculate the wrench scale
reading which corresponds to the specified torque value:
• Scale reading = specified torque x

L = distance between the driving tang and the centre of the handle
X = length of extension spanner between centres
• A simple way of calculating the scale reading required without
using the formula is set out in the following example, for which
the specified torque loading is 300 lb in and the lengths of the
wrench and spanner are 10 and 5 inches respectively.

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 Centre of gravity (Centre of mass)
• In many applications, it is important that objects are designed with
stability in mind.

• This requires an understanding of the centre of mass, as well as an

ability to find out where it is.

• Mass is the amount of matter an object has.

• Every part of an object forms part of its overall mass, But when we
try to balance an object on a point, there will only be one place
where it will balance.

• You can therefore think of the mass of an object being concentrated

at this point, known as the centre of mass, or “centroid”.
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 Finding the centre of mass for
symmetrical objects
• The center of mass for a symmetrical object
can be found easily.
• The axes of symmetry are marked on the
object.
• The center of mass is where the axes of
symmetry cross.

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Finding the center of mass by suspending objects
• The center of mass for an irregular shaped, non-
symmetrical (‫ )غير منتظم‬object is found in a different way.
1. Drill a small hole in the object and hang it up so that it is
free to swing without obstruction.
2. Hang a plumb line from the suspension point, this lets
you mark the vertical line directly below the suspension
point.
3. Drill another hole at a different location within the
object.
4. Again, hang a plumb line to determine the vertical and
mark it on.
5. The point at which the two marked lines cross is the
center of mass.
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 Centre of gravity (centre of mass) by calculation
• When a beam is pivoted at some point (the
“fulcrum”), and has several masses
positioned at different points along the
beam, such that the beam is in equilibrium
(balanced), then the position of the fulcrum
can be found by standard principle of
moments and calculation.

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 Arm
• The arm is the horizontal distance that an item is
located from the datum (‫)نقطة مرجعيه‬.
• If the particular item is located forward, or to the
left of the datum, it is shown with a negative (-)
sign.
• If the item is located aft, or to the right of the
datum, it is shown with a positive (+) sign.

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 CONT…
• The conventional signs which are applied to
arms and moments in relation to their
direction from the C of G datum are as follows:
a) Horizontal (-) forward and (+) aft of the datum
b) Vertical (-) below and (+) above the datum
c) Transverse (-) right and (+) left of the datum

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 Example
• A uniform beam weighs 40 lbs; it is 15 ft long
and has a load of 10 lbs, 25 lbs and 45 lbs at
distances of 2 ft, 6 ft and 14 ft from the left
hand end respectively.
• Find the C of G position relative to the centre
of the beam.

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 The tabular method
• The tabular method is useful when the moment system is
complex.
• The method works by listing the masses (including the mass of
the beam itself, acting at the centre of the beam, assuming that
the beam mass is uniformly distributed).
• In the next column, the arm of each respective mass is listed. The
datum point, for convenience, is taken to be one end of the beam.
• The masses and the arms are then totaled at the bottom of their
respective columns.
Example
• A uniform beam 60 cm long and having a mass of 8 kg, has
masses of 2 kg, 10 kg, 20 kg and 30 kg at distances of 6 cm, 14 cm,
23 cm and 36 cm respectively, from the left hand end. Find C of G
of beam.
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 Aircraft centre of gravity
• An aircraft is balanced if it remains
level when suspended from an
imaginary point.
• This point is the location of its ideal CG.
• The CG of an aeroplane or helicopter is
the location where all the mass of the
aircraft is considered to act.
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 Balancing
• Aircraft balance refers to the location of the centre
of gravity along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
• The Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point about
which an aircraft would balance if it were possible
to suspend it from that point.
• Obtaining this balance is simply a matter of placing
loads so that the average arm of the loaded
aircraft falls within the C of G range.
• The exact location of the range is specified for
each type of aircraft in the flight manual.
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 The datum
• The “datum” is an imaginary vertical line from
which all horizontal measurements are taken or
indicated, with the aircraft in level flight attitude,
for balance purposes.
• The datum may be located at any convenient
location by the manufacturer of the aircraft.
• There is no fixed rule for the location of this datum.
• In most cases it is located on the nose of the
aircraft or some point on the aircraft structure
itself.

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 If an aircraft is
suspended from its
centre of gravity
position, it will
balance

Centre of Gravity (CG) is the point at which all

the mass of the aircraft can be considered to act

Graphical symbol for

centre of gravity
position
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 Stress/ ‫ اإلجهاد‬, strain/ ‫ التواء‬and elasticity/
‫المرونه‬
• The structure (or “airframe”) of an aircraft or
helicopter is designed to carry the loads imposed
by the forces of lift, thrust, drag and weight in an
efficiently aerodynamic way which still permits a
commercially viable payload(‫)الحموله‬.

• Generally, a simple structure is made up of three

types of member, i.e. beams, struts and ties.
‫ الدعامات والعَّالقات‬، ‫الحزم‬

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A beam: is a structural element that primarily resists loads
applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is
primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result
in reaction forces at the beam's support points.

A strut:
is a structural component commonly found in engineering,
aeronautics, architecture and anatomy. Struts generally
work by resisting longitudinal compression, but they may
also serve in tension.

Tie: rod, eyebar, guy-wire, suspension cables, or wire ropes,

are examples of linear structural components designed to
resist tension.
A member subject to bending is known as
a beam, one being subject to compression
as a strut and one being subject to tension
as a tie.
Stress, strain and elasticity CONT…
• the relationship between the load and the
cross-sectional area of the member.
• This is called the “stress” in the member and is
measured in pounds per square inch, newton's
per square meter
• When a load is applied to a member in a
framework it will, to some extent, move under
the load.

•
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For example, a tie will stretch under load. The vertical
movement of the wing tips of a large aircraft is evidence of
the extension and compression of the upper and lower
surfaces.
This movement under load is called “strain”.

1-Bending

4- Compression
3-Torsion
5-Tension

2-Shear
 Stress, strain and elasticity CONT…
• It is in fact a load on the strut only when the
aircraft is on the ground and it is supporting
the weight of the wing.
• During a heavy landing, the compressive
loads on the strut are increased considerably.
• In flight, it is no longer a strut but acts as a tie
since the lift developed by the wing has
reversed the loads.

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 Stress, strain and elasticity CONT…
• The spar of a helicopter rotor blade will be in
tension at the upper surface and in compression
at the lower surface with the aircraft on the
ground and the rotor stationary.

• In addition to the loads imposed by lift and weight

there are also loads imposed by thrust and drag
and, on the ground, maneuvers such as braking
and turning.
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Stress, strain and elasticity CONT…
• Prior to designing an effective repair to a
damaged sheet metal aircraft, the stresses
that act on the structure must have been
identified.
• There are only five types of stress, among
which two are primary ones.
• The other three types can, for practical
purposes, be expressed in terms of the first
two.

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 Primary stresses ) tension, compression(
• Tension and compression are the two basic
stresses and the other three, bending, torsion
and shear, are really just different arrangements
of tension and compression working on a body at
the same time.

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 Primary stresses ) tension, compression(

• Tension: is a primary stress that tries to pull a

body apart.
• Compression:The other primary stress, tries
to squeeze the part together.
• This is called “compressive stress”.

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 Secondary stresses – shear, torsion and
bending
• Shear – shear forces try to slide a body apart and if a rivet or
bolt is examined that has failed because of shear forces, it will
be recognized that the shank has actually been pulled apart.
• Torsion – torsion is a twisting force. When a structural member
is twisted, a tensile stress acts diagonally across the member
and a compressive stress acts at right angles to the tension.
• Bending – a bending force tries to pull one side of a body apart
while at the same time squeezing the other side together.
• The wing struts are under tension in flight but under
compression on the ground.

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 Stress and strain
• What is known as axial (or normal) stress, is
defined as the force perpendicular to the
cross-sectional area of the member divided by
the cross sectional area. Or:

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 Materials behaviour
• The following are the properties of a material
under Stress which are important in
engineering terms;
Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength or tenacity describes the
ability of a material to resist breaking under a
tensile (stretching) force.

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 Materials behaviour
Compressive Strength
• This is a measure of a materials ability to withstand
compressive or squeezing loads without splitting or
cracking.
Shear Strength
• Shear Strength is the ability to resist off-set (scissor
(‫)قص‬action) loads.
Toughness
• Toughness is the ability of a material to resist fracture
under impact load.
• It is the opposite of brittleness
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 Materials behavior
Elasticity
• Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to
its original shape after deformation.
• The extension or compression of a spring is a
good example.

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 The properties of a solid
• Solids have the greatest density (“heaviest‟)
because the particles are closest together.

• Solids cannot flow freely like gases or liquids

because the particles are strongly held in fixed
positions.

• Solids have a fixed surface and volume (at a

particular temperature) because of the strong
particle attraction.
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 The properties of a solid
• Solids are extremely difficult to compress
because there is no real “empty” space between
the particles.

• Solids will expand a little on heating but nothing

like as much as liquids because of the greater
particle attraction restricting the expansion
(contract on cooling).

• The expansion is caused by the increased

strength of particle vibration.
 Liquid
• Much greater forces of attraction between the particles
in a liquid compared to gases, but not quite as much as
in solids.

• Particles quite close together but still arranged at

random throughout the container.

• Particles moving rapidly in all directions but more

frequently colliding (‫ )تتصادم‬with each other than in
gases.

• With increase in temperature, the particles move faster

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as they gain kinetic energy.
 Liquid CONT…
Properties of a liquid
• Liquids have a much greater density than gases
(“heavier”)
• Liquids flow freely despite the forces of attraction
between the particles but liquids are not as “fluid” as
gases.
• Liquids have a surface, and a fixed volume (at a
particular temperature)
• Liquids are not readily compressed because of the lack
of “empty” space between the particles.
• Liquids will expand on heating (contract on cooling)
but nothing like as much as gases because of the
greater particle attraction restricting the expansion.
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 Atom arrangement in a liquid

Atom arrangement in a solid

Solid, liquid and gas comparison

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 Gas
• Almost no forces of attraction between the
particles which are completely free of each other.
• Particles widely spaced and scattered(‫ )مبعثر‬at
random throughout the container so there is no
order in the system.
• Particles moving rapidly in all directions,
frequently colliding with each other and the side
of the container.
• With increase in temperature, the particles move
faster as they gain kinetic energy.

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 Properties of a gas
• Gases have a low density (“light”) because the particles
are so spaced out in the container (density = mass ÷
volume).
• Gases flow freely because there are no effective forces
of attraction between the particles.
• Gases have no surface, and no fixed shape or volume.
• Gases are readily compressed
• If the “container” volume can change, gases readily
expand on heating because of the lack of particle
attraction, and readily contract on cooling.
• The natural rapid and random movement of the
particles means that gases readily “spread” or diffuse.
• Diffusion
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 Atom arrangement in a gas

Solid, liquid and gas comparison

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 Changes of state
• Evaporation (liquid to gas)
• In evaporation and boiling the highest kinetic energy
molecules can “escape” from the attractive forces
(‫ )قوة الجذب‬of the other liquid particles.
• The particles lose any order and become completely
free.
• Energy is needed to overcome the attractive forces
in the liquid and is taken in from the surroundings.
• This means heat is taken in (endothermic) (‫ماص‬
‫)للحرارة‬.. Phyiscs
• Boiling is rapid evaporation at a fixed temperature
called the boiling point.
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 Condensation (gas to liquid)
• On cooling, gas particles lose kinetic energy and
eventually become attracted together to form a
liquid.
• There is an increase in order as the particles are
much closer together and can form clumps of
molecules. ‫))كتل من الجزيئات‬
• The process requires heat to be lost to the
surroundings i.e. heat given out, so condensation
is exothermic. / ‫طارد للحرارة‬.

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 Melting (solid to liquid)
• When a solid is heated the particles vibrate more
strongly and the particle attractive forces are
weakened.
• Eventually, at the melting point, the attractive
forces are too weak to hold the structure
together and the solid melts.
• The particles become free to move around and
lose their ordered arrangement.
 Gas to liquid transformation

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 Freezing (liquid to solid)
• On cooling, liquid particles lose kinetic energy
and become more strongly attracted to each
other.

• At the freezing point the forces of attraction are

sufficient to remove any remaining freedom and
the particles come together to form the ordered
solid arrangement.

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 Freezing (liquid to solid)
• Since heat must be removed to the surroundings
freezing is an exothermic process.

Sublimation and deposition

• Sometimes solids can become gases without ever
becoming liquids. This is called sublimation.

• When a gas becomes a solid without going

through the liquid phase, it is called deposition.
06/19/2024 70
 Pressure
• Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area.

• It can be applied to any fluid (both gases and

liquids).

• In the atmosphere, pressure is caused by the mass

air acting under the force of gravity on a given area.

• As all molecules act under gravity then the pressure

can also be considered to be the weight of a column
of air on a unit area.
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 Pressure CONT….

• A fluid contains a certain number of

molecules.
• Pressure has a magnitude (‫ )كميه‬but, unlike a
vector, it has no direction.
• The direction of pressure depends upon the
orientation of the surface.
• The forces always act at right angles to the
surface that the pressure is exposed to.

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 Pressure CONT…
• * If the volume is reduced, the molecules act on a
smaller area.

• Thus, the force exerted per unit area increases, hence

the volume has higher pressure.

• The opposite will occur if the volume is increased.

• If the temperature in the enclosed fluid is increased,

then the molecules start to move faster, the force
exerted by the collision / ‫ التصادم‬is increased and so is the
pressure.
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 Pressure CONT…
• If the temperature is lowered the opposite takes
place and at the theoretical temperature absolute
zero (0), the molecules are in rest and the pressure
is zero (0).
• Another important property of gases is that they
always tend to move towards regions having a
lower pressure than where it comes from (i.e. high
pressure always flows towards low pressure, until
the pressures are equalised).
 Pressure is caused by collisions of
the molecules of the fluid against
the surfaces with which it is contact.
For any given number of molecules,
a smaller volume creates a higher
number of collisions thus a higher
pressure. A fluid flows from a
A higher temperature gives the high pressure
molecules more kinetic energy so towards a lower
they strike the surfaces with greater
force, thus a greater pressure

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 Cold air is heavier (more dense) so it
sinks, increases pressure, and a wind blows
towards areas of warm air (low pressure)

A pressure creates a force

upon any surface with which it is in contact.
The Force = Pressure x Area

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 Unit
• If an area of 1 is exposed to a force of 1 N the
pressure is 1 N/ also known as 1 Pascal(Pa).
• In meteorology (‫)علم االرصاد الجوية‬, the unit of
pressure is the millibar (mb).
• Meteorological pressure was measured in terms
of the length of a column of mercury in a
barometer that the weight of the atmosphere
could support.

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 Measuring pressure
• The standard pressure (or normal pressure) measured at
mean sea level (MSL) is 1 ATM (atmosphere pressure),
equivalent to 760 mm or (29.92” hg). Or 14.69 psi

• But, like it or not, it is common practice to do so! A

pressure of 1 ATM is equal to 101,325 Pa or 1,013.25
hPa (hectopascals) or 101.325 kPa (kilopascal).

• The unit hectopascal (hPa) is the standard unit now

applied in all meteorological aspects, and has replaced
the older millibar (mb) unit.
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 Measuring pressure / CONT…
• When measuring the pressure in hydraulic
systems and pneumatic systems etc., the unit
“bar” is frequently used in European countries,
because it is a large unit.
• 1 bar = 100,000 Pa. = 14.69 psi

• Most industries in the USA and in the

commonwealth countries still prefer the unit
“pound per square inches” (psi) or pound per
square feet (PSF).
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 Atmospheric pressure
• The atmosphere is the entire mass of air
that surrounds the earth.
• While it extends upward for about 500
miles, the section of primary interest is
the portion that rests on the earth's
surface and extends upward for about
7½ miles.
• Thus, atmospheric pressure at sea level
is approximately 14.7 psi.
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 Atmospheric pressure / CONT…
• As one ascends, the atmospheric pressure
decreases by approximately 1.0 psi for
every 2,343 feet.
• However, below sea level, in excavations
and depressions, atmospheric pressure
increases.
• Pressures under water differ from those
under air only because the weight of the
water must be added to the pressure of the
air.
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 Atmospheric pressure / CONT…
• Atmospheric pressure acting on the
surface of a liquid is transmitted
equally throughout the liquid to the
walls of the container, but is
balanced by the same atmospheric
pressure acting on the outer walls
of the container.
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 Buoyancy in liquids
• A fluid is a substance that flows
easily.

• Gases and liquids are fluids, although

sometimes the dividing line between
liquids and solids is not always clear.

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 Archimedes’ principle applied to bodies
that float
• A body will float in any liquid that
has a weight density greater than the
weight density of the body.
• For example, a body of weight
density 63.4 lb/ would float in ocean
water(D = 64.4 lb/) and sink in lake
water (D = 62.4 lb/).
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 Archimedes’ principles as applied to
airships and balloons
• we have talked about Archimedes’ principle as if it
applied only to liquids.
• Since most of our experience with this principle is
with liquids, it seemed easier to do this at first.
• However, it must now be emphasized that
buoyant forces exist also with gases.
• The obvious example is that of a hot air balloon or
a lighter-than-air aircraft.

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 Hot air balloon

Helium filled airship

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