When do Organisms need

Transport Systems?
 We need TRANSPORT when
2 cells are far from each other
materials needed to be moved from
one place to another
huge sum of substances to be moved
 Why do Organisms need
Transport Systems?
ensure a continual supply of nutrients,
oxygen and other useful materials for
metabolism and removal of toxic waste
products produced by metabolism
small animal can undergo this by
diffusion but large animal cannot,
they need a transport system
 Blood Components
blood = plasma + blood cells
(straw-coloured fluid) (corpuscles)
 blood cells include red blood cell
(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes )
and blood platelets where red blood cells are
the most numerous blood cells and give blood
the red colour
 Separation of blood
Blood components can be separated by
centrifuge

A Centrifuge for
separation Plasma Blood cells
 Composition of
Mammalian Blood
Whole Blood

Plasma Blood Cell

(55% by volume) (45% by volume)

90 % Water White Red

Blood Cell Blood Cell
10% Dissolved Platelets
Substances Phagocytes
Lymphocytes
 Blood Plasma
Plasma is approximately 55% by volume and
contains
WATER (as a solvent)
SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES
 protein  hormones
 mineral salts  gases
 dissolved food substances
 metabolic wastes
Blood Cells

Platelets

White Blood Cell

Red Blood Cell

 Red Blood Cells
(red corpuscles, erythrocytes)
 form within bone marrow

 short life span with about 120 days

 old red blood cells are destroyed in

liver & spleen
 they have no nuclei when mature

- it increases the space to carry

haemoglobin
 they have biconcave disc shape

- which provides large surface area to diffuse

oxygen
 possess of haemoglobin
– haemoglobin is an iron-containing
compound and its presence is responsible
for the colour of red blood cell

– enable red blood cell to carry oxygen from

lungs to all parts of the body
Red blood cells
 Transport of Oxygen
haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen
when the concentration of oxygen is high

In lung
Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
In tissue
 change of haemoglobin to oxyhaemoglobin is
accompanied by the colour change from
purplish red to bright red
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
CO2 (from CO2
tissue) (in bloodstream)
enzyme H+ + HCO3-
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
hydrogen-
carbonic acid carbonate ion

- (In red blood cell)

HCO 3

(in plasma)
To Test a Sample of Blood
Plasma (chicken/pig/ox)
for glucose
 Fehling’s
solutions A
supernatant
and B
centrifuge

boiling
water
chicken blood

Name the supernatant obtained after centrifugation.

Ans: It is plasma.
 Fehling’s
solutions A
supernatant
and B
centrifuge

boiling
water
chicken blood

What does the precipitate in the centrifuge tube

consist of ?
Ans: The precipitate contains blood cells.
 Fehling’s
solutions A
supernatant
and B
centrifuge

boiling
water
chicken blood

What happens to the supernatant when it is heated with Fehling’s solutions A and
B?

Ans: The supernatant forms an orange precipitate.

 White Blood Cells (white
corpuscles, leucocytes)
 larger than red blood cells White bloodand
cells
irregular in shape
 prominent nucleus
 no haemoglobin
 kill germs, defend against disease
 two main kinds of white blood cells:
phagocytes and lymphocytes Red blood cells
 White Blood Cells
- Phagocytes
made in bone marrow but different from the place
where red blood cells are made
irregularly shaped nucleus
move like Amoeba
can squeeze out through the walls of capillaries into
the surrounding tissues
engulf dead cells or pathogens
 White Blood Cells
- Lymphocytes
made in bone marrow, then migrate to
lymph nodes

large nucleus which nearly fills up the

cells
produce antibodies to attack germs by
reaction with their surfaces and often cause
them to clump together

produce antitoxins to neutralize the toxins

secreted by germs
 Platelets
(thrombocytes)
platelets are not cells

fragments budded off from specialized cells in bone

marrow

smaller than other blood cells

life-span is about 5 to 9 days

agent for initializing blood clotting

 Blood Clotting
when platelets are damaged in an injury, it
releases a chemical substance which starts
a chain of reactions
results: fibrinogen fibrin

fibrin acts like a net, trapping blood cells and

plugging the wound so bleeding stops
serum are yellowish fluid which is
plasma without fibrinogen

clot dries up and harden to form a scab

 when new skin formed
under the scab, it loosens

and comes off

The clotting of blood

(plasma protein)
 Functions of Blood
It acts as a transport medium for oxygen, carbon
dioxide, food, urea, hormones, antibodies and heat
It contains white blood cells and platelets for body
defense against infection
It helps in maintaining body temperature constant
In emergencies an injured
person may die...
How can we save his life?

Blood Transfusion
Any criteria for Blood Transfusion?
Donor’s blood and recipient’s blood must be
compatible, otherwise, agglutination will
occur which will block the blood vessels
 Blood Grouping
a person’s blood group determined by the
protein present on the surface of red blood
cells called antigens

there are two different antigens called antigen

A and antigen B. For a person in group A
contains antigen A
 in human, there are mainly four different blood
groups called A, B, AB and O

 in plasma, there may contain antibodies

known as anti-A and anti-B. They will react
with certain red blood cells which contain the
wrong antigen
 The ABO Blood Group
Type A Type B Type AB Type O
Antigen A Antigen B Antigens A and B Neither antigen
A or B
Red blood
cell

Neither Antibodies A
Antibody B Antibody A antibody A and and B
B
Plasma
 Human Blood Groups
Blood Antigen Antibodies Recipient
Group (RBC) (Plasma)
A A Anti-B A & AB
B B Anti-A B & AB
AB A&B NO AB only
O NO Both anti-A ALL
& anti-B
 Agglutination Reaction

A
Type A blood of Type B antibody in type A
donor blood of recipient No agglutination

Type A blood of Type A antibody in type B

donor blood of recipient Agglutination
 Human Blood Groups
Donor Recipient
A B Agglutination

AB = universal
recipient
O = universal
donor
 Blood Vessels
there are three main kinds of vessels: arteries, veins
and capillaries

arteries carry blood away from the heart while veins

carry blood towards the heart
 Blood Circulation
Vein Artery
Heart

Venule Arteriole
Capillary
 Blood Vessels

Artery

Vein
 Artery
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart and so the blood
is under high pressure

wall of arteries are thick

and supported with
muscles and elastic fibres
Artery
 Vein
• Blood pressure is much lower in vein as blood has flowed slowly through the capillaries before entering the
vein

• vein has larger lumen and thinner walls than artery

Vein
valves present to prevent
backflow of blood and ensure
that it flows towards the heart

Valve closed
blood can’t
flow back

Valve open
blood can flow
return of blood to heart is aided by
contraction of body muscles as they
squeeze the blood along the vein

Blood squeezed
towards heart
Muscle contracted

Valves closed
Prevent back-flow
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

Direction of carry blood away return blood to the

blood flow from the heart heart

thick wall made up thin wall made up

Wall
of muscles and of muscles and
elastic fibres elastic fibres
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

blood flows with blood flows steadily

Pulse
pulse with no pulse

Blood blood is under blood is under low

Pressure high pressure pressure
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins

possess no valves possess valves at

along their lengths intervals along
Valves (except the their lengths to
pulmonary artery) prevent backflow of
blood
Lumen small large
 Differences between
Arteries and Veins
Arteries Veins
Blood is Blood is
Oxygenation oxygenated deoxygenated
of blood (except in (except in
pulmonary artery) pulmonary vein)
deep inside close to the
Location
the body surface
 Demonstration of
Venous Flow in
the Fore Arm
 A B
R S

X Y
finger Y
vein elbow joint squeezing
finger X pressing blood
C D down on R towards S

finger Y removed
finger X still both fingers are
pressing down on R removed

What structure in the vein is indicated by the appearance

of the bulge at S shown in diagram C ?
Ans: The valve in the vein.
 A B
R S

X Y
finger Y
vein elbow joint squeezing
finger X pressing blood
C D down on R towards S

finger Y removed
finger X still both fingers are
pressing down on R removed

What is the purpose of tying the arm with a piece of rubber

tubing ?
Ans: This makes the vein more conspicuous.
 A B
R S

X Y
finger Y
vein elbow joint squeezing
finger X pressing blood
C D down on R towards S

finger Y removed
finger X still both fingers are
pressing down on R removed
With reference to the steps shown, explain why the part of
the vein between R and S has disappeared ?
Ans:InSince
Ans: Onstep
theB,there
other
fingerare
hand,
valves
finger
Y squeezes atthe
Xpoint
is still
vein S, blood
pressing
towards is down
point S.
Blood in this
on point
prevented segment
R which is therefore
from flowing
prevents back …pushed
blood alonginto
flowing … R.
 A B
R S

X Y
finger Y
vein elbow joint squeezing
finger X pressing blood
C D down on R towards S

finger Y removed
finger X still both fingers are
pressing down on R removed

Why is it necessary to take the rubber tubing away as soon

as the demonstration has been completed ?
Ans: It is because we need to restore the normal blood
flow for the arm as soon as possible.
 Capillaries
It is the smallest blood vessels
It is the site of exchange (by diffusion)
Thin wall (one cell) Nutrients

Diffusion
O2

CO2 Waste
 Adaptation of
Capillary
 It has many branches
to increase the surface area for diffusion of
materials like glucose, amino acids, water, carbon
dioxide, oxygen, mineral salts and metabolic
wastes between blood and tissue cells
 It has thin wall (only one-cell thick)

to decrease the diffusion distance for

exchange of materials between blood and
tissue cells
 Exchange of
Materials
It is carried out by diffusion through the whole length of
capillaries

(B.P. > O.P.) (O.P. > B.P.)

substance pressed out substances diffused into
to the tissue cells the blood capillary
O.P. O.P.
O.P.= osmotic
pressure
B.P.= blood B.P. B.P.
pressure
blood flow
arteriole end venule end
 Hear
t thorax, between the
 located inside the
lungs

 enclosed by the pericardium

 the wall of heart is made of cardiac

muscle and it works days and nights
throughout one’s life
 oxygen and nutrients are supplied to
heart through coronary arteries while
wastes are carried away by coronary
veins
 Structure of
Heart
the heart is divided into right and left halves
internally by a central wall or partition called
septum

heart is divided into four chambers with the

two chambers at the top of heart are auricles
and the two down at the bottom called
ventricles
 Heart-Auricles (Atrium)
 walls are relatively thin

 right auricles receives deoxygenated blood from the

venae cavae (superior vena cava and inferior vena cava)
which collect blood from all parts of the body except lungs
 left auricle receives oxygenated blood from the
pulmonary veins which come from the lungs
 Direction of Blood Flow
from Auricles to Ventricles
Right Left
Superior Pulmonary
vena cava veins
Right auricle
(atrium) Left auricle
Inferior (atrium)
vena cava Left ventricle
Right ventricle
 Heart-Ventricles
have thicker and more muscular walls than the
auricles
right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to
the lungs via the pulmonary artery
left ventricles pumps oxygenated blood into the
aorta which takes the blood around the body
 right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs,
which lie very close to the heart but left
ventricle needs to pump blood all around the
body

 left ventricle has a thicker wall of muscles

 Heart-Valves
 prevent blood from flowing backwards, ensuring
blood flows through the heart in only one direction

 there are three types of valve present in heart, they

are : Tricuspid valve, Bicuspid valve and Semilunar
valves
Tricuspid valve

-valve on the right hand side lying between

the right auricle and right ventricle has three
parts

Bicuspid valve

- it situates at the left hand side lying between

the left auricle and left ventricle is made up of
two parts
 REMARKS: chordae tendineae (heart tendon)
are attached between the two
valves above and the muscular
walls of the ventricles to prevent
the one-way valves from being
turned inside out
Semilunar valves

-situated at the entrances of the aorta and

the pulmonary artery. They are pocket-
shaped valves to prevent the backflow of
blood into the ventricles
Blood Flow from Ventricles
to Other parts of the Body
Aorta
To head
To left lung
To right lung
To body
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries veins
Venae cavae Articles
Bicuspid
Semilunar valve
Heart tendon
valves - prevent valves
Tricuspid Septum to turn inside out
valve Ventricles Cardiac muscle
Examination of a
Pig’s Heart
 pulmonary first cut pulmonary artery
artery second cut
third cut
aorta
right
auricle left
left auricle
auricle
right
auricle
left auricle
left ventricle open
right ventricle heart tendon

Why do the ventricles have thicker walls than the

auricles ?
Ans: It is because ventricles need to pump blood
to other parts of the body.
 pulmonary first cut pulmonary artery
artery second cut
third cut
aorta
right
auricle left
left auricle
auricle
right
auricle
left auricle
left ventricle open
right ventricle heart tendon

Which ventricle has a thicker wall than the other ? What is

the reason for this difference ?
Ans: Left ventricle. As it needs to pump blood all around the
body but right ventricle pumps blood to lungs which
lie close to heart.
 pulmonary first cut pulmonary artery
artery second cut
third cut
aorta
right
auricle left
left auricle
auricle
right
auricle
left auricle
left ventricle open
right ventricle heart tendon

What are the structures separating the auricles and

ventricles ?
Ans: It is septum.
 pulmonary first cut pulmonary artery
artery second cut
third cut
aorta
right
auricle left
left auricle
auricle
right
auricle
left auricle
left ventricle open
right ventricle heart tendon

Why is it necessary to have the chordae tendineae ?

Ans: It is used to prevent the one-way valves from
being turned inside out.
 pulmonary first cut pulmonary artery
artery second cut
third cut
aorta
right
auricle left
left auricle
auricle
right
auricle
left auricle
left ventricle open
right ventricle heart tendon

What is the function of the coronary artery ?

Ans: It is used to supply nutrients and oxygen to
the heart.
 Heart Attack
 cardiac muscle differs from other kinds of
muscle as it is able to contract repeatedly
without getting tired

 coronary arteries are branches from aorta

which supply nutrients and oxygen to the
cardiac muscle
 coronary heart disease is the slow down of the
flow of blood through coronary arteries which
is caused by the deposition of a fatty
substance called cholesterol on the inside
wall of these arteries, making them narrower
and rougher
 heart attack is a result of blocking coronary
arteries so cardiac muscle cannot obtain
oxygen or nutrients from blood and die as a
result, the person may die

 excess animal fat in the diet, smoking, high

blood pressure, lack of exercise and stress
may lead to heart attacks
 Heart Beat
 as cardiac muscle in its walls contracts and
relaxes, heart beats

 systole is the time when cardiac muscle

contracts and the heart becomes smaller which
squeezes blood out
 diastole is the time when cardiac muscle
relaxes and the heart becomes larger which
allow blood to flow into the auricles and
ventricles

 it consists of auricular systole, ventricular

systole and diastole
 Auricular systole

- it is about 0.1 second in duration

- contraction of the two auricles, squeezing

blood into the ventricles

 Ventricular systole

- it is about 0.3 second in duration

- contraction of the two ventricles

 - tricuspid and bicuspid valves are forced to close
by the
pressure of the blood, producing the
first heart sound “lub”

- semilunar valves are forced open by the

pressure of the blood, so blood is forced out
of the ventricles into the arteries
 Diastole

- it is about 0.4 second in duration

- all four chambers relax

- blood pressure in the ventricles decreases

and this causes the closure of the
semilunar valves, producing the second
heart sound “dup”
 Cardiac cycle is the duration between
one contraction of the auricles and the
next and it is about 0.8 seconds
 lungs
pulmonary
circulation
Blood Circulation
in Man
heart In one complete circulation,
blood flows through heart
twice but flow through the
body once only
systemic consists of two circuits:
circulation pulmonary circulation and
body systemic circulation
 Pulmonary Circulation
Venae cavae
Tissue Right Right
auricle ventricle
Deoxygenated

Pulmonary
blood

artery
Pulmonary
vein
Left ventricle Left
Lung
auricle
Oxygenated
blood
 Systemic Circulation
 contraction of left ventricle pumps
oxygenated blood out of the heart via
aorta to all parts of the body (except
lungs)
 exchange of materials occurs when blood
flows through the capillaries and become
deoxygenated

 finally, blood is collected by the venae cavae

which drains them into the right auricle of the
heart
 Lymphatic System
Tissue fluid

- fluid formed when the high blood pressure at

the arterial end of a capillary forces fluid
out through it but red blood cells, platelets and
plasma proteins stay back in the
bloodstream
- used to bath the cells and keeps them in
the right condition and provides a
medium for exchange of materials
between blood and cells
Lymph
- excess tissue fluid which cannot be
returned to the capillaries by
osmosis but drained into lymph
capillaries

- lymph capillaries are colourless vessels

present in the tissues and it will join up to
form large lymph vessels
- lymph vessels carry lymph to subclavian
veins which empty into the heart through the
superior vena cava

- lymphatic vessels contain valves, which help to

keep the lymph flowing in the right direction

- contraction of skeletal muscles also aids the

flow of lymph
Lymph nodes (lymph glands)

- situated on the way from the tissue to the

subclavian veins
Lymph nodes
- made up of tiny spaces like a sponge and
lymph is filtered through these spaces
before it can continue to return to the
bloodstream
- contain large numbers of white blood cells to
destroy bacteria and toxin in lymph
Functions of Lymphatic System
– to return excess tissue fluid to blood
system

– as a medium for material exchange

between capillaries and tissue cells
- fats are absorbed by lacteals which join
the lymphatic system so it transport
absorbed fats

- the lymph node filters the lymph, it also

produce lymphocytes which make
antibodies
 Functions of Transport System
in Angiosperms
 carries water and mineral salts from the
roots to the mesophyll cells of the
leaves for photosynthesis by xylem
carries foods made in the leaves by
photosynthesis to other cells of the
plant by phloem
 xylem and phloem are together called
vascular bundles
 Arrangement of Conducting
Tissues in Angiosperms
 in root

- close to central position in which xylem

is found in the centre in a star-like
arrangement and phloem lies
between the radial arms of the xylem
 - to resist the strong pulling force from
the wind blowing the shoot

 in stem

- close to the epidermis where the

conducting tissues are arranged in a
ring near the outside edge, with phloem
lying outside and xylem inside
 - to resist the strong bending force
produced by wind

 in leaves

- vascular bundles are often called veins

in which xylem lies above the phloem
 Xylem
 consists of long tubular vessels

 each vessel is made up of many dead cells

which are hollow and joined end to end
 the end walls of the cells have disappeared
and so a long and open tube is formed

 xylem vessels run from the root, through the

stem and finally branch out into every leaf
of the plant
xylem vessels contain no cytoplasm or
nuclei

to prevent xylem from collapsing, they have

thick cell walls made of cellulose and
strengthened by rings of a woody
substance called lignin
 Phloem
 made up of tube cells called sieve tubes
which are living cells joined end to end by
perforated horizontal walls called sieve plate

 the perforations allow dissolved substances to

flow through them so food made in the
leaves can be carried to other parts of the plant
 sieve tubes contain cytoplasm but no
nuclei and they do not have lignin
in their cell walls

 each sieve tube has a companion cell next

to it but this companion cell does
not have nucleus and contain many
other organelles
Comparison between
Sieve Tubes and Vessels
Sieve Tubes Vessels

living cells dead cells

smaller diameter larger diameter

walls relatively thin, walls relatively thick,

flexible, composed of hard, strengthened by
cellulose rings of lignin
Comparison between
Sieve Tubes and Vessels
Sieve Tubes Vessels

the lumens of mature the lumens of

cells are filled with mature cells are
cytoplasm empty
end walls of adjacent end walls of adjacent
sieve tubes from vessels cells
sieve plates break down
Upward Transportation of Water
and Mineral Salts
• root pressure

• capillarity

• by transpiration pull
 Transpiration Pull
 most of the water rising up in the xylem of the stem is pulled up by this

 during transpiration, water is continually removed from the top of xylem vessels to
supply cells in the leaves so pressure at the top of xylem reduces and water flows up
Transport of Organic Nutrients
 translocation is the process of transporting
the manufactured carbohydrates in
photosynthesis via phloem from the leaves
to other parts of the plant
~ End ~