Unit 1 Overview of Evidence

Types of Evidence
Photos from Kendall Hunt Publishing

Content from various chapters in Forensic Science for
High School Students and numerous other sources
Types of Evidence
Lessons for the JonBenet Ramsey

Case
2
Types of Evidence
1996 homicide
investigation of 6 year old
JonBenet Ramsey
provides valuable lessons
in proper crime-scene
investigations.
From this case we learn
the importance of securing
a crime scene.
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Types of Evidence
Police in Boulder, Colorado

allowed extensive contamination
of the crime scene.
Police first thought case was a
kidnapping because of a ransom
note found by her mother. For
this reason they did not search
the house until 7 hours after the
family called 911.
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Types of Evidence
Initially thinking
the case was a
kidnapping, police
did not immediately
search the house,
and did not find the
body of JonBenet in
the basement.
5
Types of Evidence
The police only blocked off

JonBenet’s bedroom with
crime scene tape to
preserve evidence her
kidnapper may have left
behind. They did not seal
of the rest of the house,
which later was included as
part of the crime scene.
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Types of Evidence
The victim’s father discovered

the body in the basement. He
covered her body with a
blanket and carried her to the
living room.
Contamination of the crime
scene occurred as well as
disruption of evidence (which
may have identified the killer).
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Types of Evidence
Once the body was

found, family, friends
and police officers
remained close by,
moving freely around
the house.
One friend cleaned the
kitchen, wiping down
counters with a spray
cleaner.
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Types of Evidence
Many hours passed

before the police
blocked off the
basement
The pathologist did
not examine the
body until 19 hours
after the crime took
place.
9
Types of Evidence
What is evidence?
1. Testimony and presentation of documents,
records, objects, and other such items relating
to the existence or non-existence of alleged or
disputed facts into which a court enquires.
2. Methods and rules that guide and govern
the establishment of a fact before a court,
collectively called the law of evidence.
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Types of Evidence
Classification of Evidence
Testimonial evidence is a statement made under oath;
also known as direct evidence or prima facie evidence.
Physical evidence is any object or material that is relevant in a

crime; also known as indirect evidence. Examples are hair, fiber,
fingerprints, documents, blood, soil, drugs, toolmarks, impressions,
glass.
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Types of Evidence
Reliability of Eyewitness
Factors that affect accuracy:
Nature of the offense and the situation in which
the crime is observed
Characteristics of the witness
Manner in which the information is retrieved
Additional factors:
Witness’s prior relationship with the accused
Length of time between the offense and the
identification
Any prior identification or failure to identify the
defendant
Any prior identification of a person other than the
defendant by the eyewitness
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Types of Evidence
Eyewitness
A police composite may be
developed from the
witness testimony by a
computer program or
forensic artist.
FACES—a composite
program by InterQuest
13
Types of Evidence
As a result of the influences on

Physical Evidence eyewitness memory, physical evidence
becomes critical.
Is generally more reliable than testimonial evidence
Can prove that a crime has been committed
Can corroborate or refute testimony
Can link a suspect with a victim or with a crime scene
Can establish the identity of persons associated with a crime
Can allow reconstruction of events of a crime
14
Types of Evidence
Reconstruction
Physical evidence can be used to
answer questions about:
What took place at a crime scene
The number of people involved
The sequence of events
A forensic scientist compares the questioned or unknown sample from

the crime scene with a sample of known origin.
15
Types of Evidence
Types of Physical Evidence

Transient evidence is temporary; easily changed or lost; usually observed by
the first officer at the scene.
Pattern evidence is produced by direct contact between a person and an object
or between two objects.
Conditional evidence is produced by a specific event or action; important in
crime scene reconstruction and in determining the set of circumstances or
sequence within a particular event.
Transfer evidence is produced by contact between person(s) and object(s), or
between person(s) and person(s).
Associative evidence is something that may associate a victim or suspect with
a scene or with each other; e.g., personal belongings.
—Henry C. Lee and Jerry Labriola, Famous Crimes Revisited, 2001

16
Types of Evidence
Examples of Transient Evidence

Odor—putrefaction, perfume, gasoline,
urine, burning, explosives, cigarette or
cigar smoke
Temperature—surroundings, car hood,
coffee, water in a bathtub, cadaver
Imprints and indentations— footprints,
teeth marks in perishable foods, tire
marks on certain surfaces
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Types of Evidence
Examples of Pattern Evidence

Pattern evidence—mostly in the form of imprints, indentations,
striations, markings, fractures, or deposits
Blood spatter Clothing or article distribution

Glass fracture Gunpowder residue
Fire burn pattern Material damage
Furniture position Body position
Projectile trajectory Toolmarks
Tire marks or skid marks Modus operandi
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Types of Evidence
Examples of Conditional Evidence

Light—headlight, lighting conditions, Vehicles—doors locked or unlocked,
lights on or off windows opened or closed, radio off
or on, odometer mileage
Smoke—color, direction of travel,
density, odor Body—position and types of wounds;
rigor, livor, and algor mortis
Fire—color and direction of the flames,
speed of spread, temperature and Scene—condition of furniture, doors
condition of fire and windows, any disturbance or
signs of a struggle
Location—of injuries or wounds, of
bloodstains, of the victim’s vehicle, of
weapons or cartridge cases, of
broken glass
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Types of Evidence
Classification of Evidence by Nature

Biological—blood, semen, saliva, sweat, tears, hair, bone, tissues, urine, feces,
animal material, insects, bacteria, fungi, botanical material
Chemical—fibers, glass, soil, gunpowder, metals, minerals, narcotics, drugs,

paper, ink, cosmetics, paint, plastic, lubricants, fertilizer
Physical—fingerprints, footprints, shoeprints, handwriting, firearms, tire marks,

toolmarks, typewriting
Miscellaneous—laundry marks, voice analysis, polygraph, photography, stress

evaluation, psycholinguistic analysis, vehicle identification
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Types of Evidence
Evidence Characteristics
Individual—can be identified with a particular person or a single source
•Fingerprints - 1 X 1060
• 1 in 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
Fingerprints Blood DNA Typing
Class—common to a group of objects or persons
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Types of Evidence
Class vs. Individual Evidence

These fibers are class evidence;
there is no way to determine if
they came from this garment.
The large piece of glass fits

exactly to the bottle; it is
individual evidence.
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Types of Evidence
Class vs. Individual Evidence, continued
Which examples do you think could be

individual evidence?
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Types of Evidence
Forensic Investigations
Include some or all of these seven major activities:
1. Recognition—the ability to distinguish important evidence
from unrelated material
Pattern recognition
Physical property observation
Information analysis
Field testing
2. Preservation through the collection and proper packaging of

evidence
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Types of Evidence
Forensic Investigations, continued

3. Identification using scientific testing
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Morphological (structural) properties
Biological properties
Immunological properties
4. Comparison of class characteristics measured against those of

known standards or controls; if all measurements are equal, then
the two samples may be considered to have come from the same
source or origin
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Types of Evidence
Forensic Investigations, continued
5. Individualization in demonstrating that the sample is unique, even

among members of the same class
6. Interpretation—giving meaning to all the information
7. Reconstruction of the events in the case

Inductive and deductive logic
Statistical data
Pattern analysis
Results of laboratory analysis
—Henry C. Lee and Jerry Labriola, Famous Crimes Revisited, 2001
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Types of Evidence
Probability and Class Evidence

A young person was seen leaving a high school
parking lot after having been near a car with a
broken window; a purse was missing from the
passenger seat. The suspect was identified as
having light brown hair and wearing a white
shirt, blue jeans, and dark colored athletic shoes.
 In a school of 1,600 students, how common

are these charaterisitics?
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Types of Evidence
How many students would be expected to be

wearing a white shirt on any given day? Let’s say
that in your class of 33 students, seven are wearing a
white shirt. What percentage of the class is this?
If this percent is representative of the whole school,

how many students in the whole school are likely to
be wearing a white shirt?
Is this good evidence?
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Types of Evidence
How many students would be wearing blue

jeans? In your class you count 12 wearing blue
jeans. What percentage is this?
How many students in the school would be

wearing blue jeans?
How many students in school are likely to be

wearing a white shirt and blue jeans?
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Types of Evidence
 Now determine how many students would be likely to have

light brown hair. In your class you count 5 students with light
brown hair. What is the percentage of students with this hair
color?
 How many students in the school would have light brown hair?
 What is the percentage of students that would be wearing a
white shirt, blue jeans, and have light brown hair?
 How many students in the whole student body would meet that
description?
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Types of Evidence
Now let’s calculate how 4 pieces of class

evidence could affect the probability of
nailing the suspect. If four students in your
class are wearing dark colored athletic
shoes, what is the percentage of your class
wearing this type of shoe?
How many students in school would likely
be wearing this type of shoe?
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Types of Evidence
How many students in school are likely to

be wearing a white shirt, blue jeans, have
light brown hair, and are wearing dark
colored athletic shoes?
32
Types of Evidence
Can this evidence be
Individualized?
A torn t-shirt was found in the backseat of a
suspect’s car. A piece of torn cloth was
found at the scene of the crime. Can it be
individualized to the t-shirt? Explain
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Types of Evidence
A pistol was found in a theater where a man

was shot. A suspect know to have owned a
Derringer like this one was apprehended.
Would this gun be considered individual or
class evidence?
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Types of Evidence
Pieces of a broken bottle were found at the

scene of an assault. The bottom of the bottle
was found in the suspect’s car. Can the
pieces of the bottle be uniquely associated
(individualized) with what was found in the
suspect’s car? Explain
35
Types of Evidence
Some blond hairs were found on the gloves

of a suspected kidnapper who has brown
hair. Would they be considered class or
individual evidence?
36
Types of Evidence
A bloody knife has been found in the

backyard of a murder suspect. Under what
circumstances could it be individualized?
Or will it remain as class evidence?
37
Types of Evidence
Are tire impression such as these individual

or class evidence? Explain
38
Types of Evidence
Can it be determined whether these bullets

and casing were fired from the same gun?
How can bullets be individualized to a gun?
Explain
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Types of Evidence
Some powder was found in a plastic bag in a

suspect’s pocket. Some similar powder was
found on the victim. Can the first powder be
individualized to the second powder?
Explain. If the two powders were
determined to be chemically identical, does
that prove that they came from the same
source?
40
Types of Evidence
A pair of latex gloves was found at the scene

of a robbery. A box of the same brand of
latex gloves was found at the suspect’s
home. Can the gloves be individualized to
the box? Explain.
41
Collecting Trace Evidence
Who collects the evidence?
 Police Officer
 Crime Scene Investigator
 Forensic Scientist
Depends on the state/community

Often one person to ensure consistency
of labeling
42
Trace > Collecting
Collect trace or entire object?
Suppose a glove appears to have

glass, fibers and blood on it.
Should the glass, fibers and
blood be removed and
packaged separately?
Should the entire glove be packaged?
43
Trace > Collection
Considerations before packaging entire object:
 Object may be too large or difficult to move

 Trace evidence may fall off item during transport.
 Trace Evidence may be transferred to different,
irrelevant area of object.
If packaging object, package objects separately.
Prevents trace being transferred to other objects.
44
Trace > Collection
These 3 methods can be done at the

crime scene or in the crime lab.
1. Visual Inspection
2. Tape Lift
3. Vacuum
45
Trace > Collection
Visible Inspection
 Use naked eye or hand lens.
 Evidence removed and packaged for later
analysis
 Use bright light and forceps to collect.
46
Trace > Collection
Visible Inspection (Packaging)

 Small paper envelopes are bad (Holes
allow small objects to escape).
 Use small plastic bags, glass vial or paper
using a druggist fold.
 Double package. Label each package.
47
Trace > Collection
Tape Lift
 Clear tape is used.
 Repeatedly apply tape to small area until
most of the stickiness is gone.
 Tape is folded back upon itself, taped to a
glass slide or taped to a piece of plastic.
 Put in separate labeled container.
Be sure to document specific area covered.
48
Trace > Collection
Vacuuming
 Nozzle should be
short and
transparent.
 Debris is collected
on a filter or
membrane
49
Trace > Collection
Vacuuming
 Small area is vacuumed. (Filters changed
frequently)
 Filters packaged in separate labeled
container. (Be sure to document specific area
covered)
 Most improperly used method because it
often results in the collection of a lot of
irrelevant material.
50
Druggist Fold
 Consists of folding one end of the paper
over one third, then folding the other end
one third over that, and repeating the
process from the other two sides.
 After the paper is folded in this manner,
the outside two edges are tucked into
each other to produce a closed container
that keeps specimen from falling out.
51
Types of Evidence
Wayne Williams Trial
• Fulton County Case in 1981

• First case in which primary evidence was
fiber evidence
• Fibers linked Williams to being in contact
with the bodies
• Media released info that GBI/FBI were
collecting fibers
• Williams began dumping nude bodies in
rivers
52
Types of Evidence
Wayne Williams Trial
• Fiber links to dog, cars, home, bedspread

• He was convicted for being linked to the
bodies prior to dumping
• Set standard for murder trials based on
overwhelming circumstantial evidence
53
Hair
Hair
54
Hair
Introduction
Human hair is one of the most frequently found pieces of evidence
at the scene of a violent crime. It can provide a link between the
criminal and the crime.
From hair, one can determine:
If the source is human or animal
Race (sometimes)
Origin of the location on the source’s body
Whether the hair was forcibly removed
If the hair has been treated with chemicals
If drugs have been ingested
55
Hair
Skin Structure
56
Hair
Hair Shaft
Composed of:
Cuticle—outside covering, made
of overlapping scales
Cortex—inner layer made of
keratin and embedded with
pigment; also contains air sacs
called cortical fusi
Medulla—inside layer running
down the center of the cortex
57
Hair
The Cuticle
The cuticle is the outermost layer of hair which is covered with scales.
The scales point toward the tip of the hair. Scales differ among species of
animals and are named based on their appearance. The three basic
patterns are:
Coronal
Spinous
Imbricate
58
Hair
Human Scales
In order to visualize the
scales:
Paint clear fingernail polish on a
glass slide.
When the polish begins to dry, place
a hair on the polish.
When it is almost dry, lift off the hair
and observe the scale imprints.
What pattern is seen in this slide?
59
Hair
The Cortex
The cortex gives the hair its shape.
It has two major characteristics:
Melanin—pigment granules that give hair its color
Cortical fusi—air spaces, usually found near the root but

may be found throughout the hair shaft
60
Hair
The Medulla
The medulla is the hair core that is not always visible. The medulla
comes in different types and patterns.
Types:
Intermittent or interrupted
Fragmented
Continuous
Stacked
Absent—not present
61
Hair
Human Medulla
Human medulla may be continuous,
fragmented, or absent.
62
Hair
Medullary Index
Determined by measuring the
diameter of the medulla and dividing it mouse
by the diameter of the hair.
Medullary index for human hair

is generally less than 1/3.
For animal hair, it is usually

greater than 1/2.
63
Hair
Hair Shape
Can be straight, curly, or kinky, depending on the cross-section,
which may be round, oval, or crescent-shaped.
Round Oval Crescent moon

(Straight) (Curly) (Kinky)
64
Hair
Hair Growth
Terminology
Anagen—hair is actively growing; lasts up to 5 years
Catagen—hair is not growing; a resting phase
Telogen—follicle is getting ready to push the hair out; lasts
two to six months

Grows about 0.4 mm per day, or 1 cm per month; approximately one-
half inch per month
65
Hair
The Root
Human roots look different based on whether they have been
forcibly removed or they are telogen hairs and have fallen out.
Animal roots vary, but in general have a spear shape.
Fallen out Forcibly removed
66
Hair
Hair Comparison
Color Scale types
Length Presence or absence of
Diameter medulla
Distribution, shape, and color Medullary type
intensity of pigment granules
Medullary pattern
Medullary index
• Dyed hair has color in
cuticle and cortex
• Bleaching removes pigment
and gives a yellow tint
67
Hair
DNA from Hair

The root contains nuclear DNA. If the hair has been forcibly
removed, some follicular tissue containing DNA may be attached.
The hair shaft contains abundant mitochondrial DNA, inherited only

from the mother. It can be typed by comparing relatives if no DNA
from the body is available. This process is more difficult and more
costly than using nuclear DNA.
68
Hair
Collection of Hair
Questioned hairs must be accompanied by an adequate number of
control samples.
• From victim
• From possible suspects
• From others who may have deposited hair at the scene
Control sample
• 50 full-length hairs from all areas of scalp
• 24 full-length pubic hairs
69
Hair
Hair Toxicology
Advantages:
• Easy to collect and store
• Is externally available
• Can provide information on the individual’s history of drug use or
evidence of poisoning
Collections must be taken from different locations on the body

to get an accurate timeline.
70
Hair
Hair Toxicology, continued
Napoleon died in exile in 1821. By

analyzing his hair, some investigators
suggest he was poisoned by the
deliberate administration of arsenic;
others suggest that it was vapors
from the dyes in the wallpaper that
killed him.
71
Hair
More about Hair

For additional information about hair and other trace evidence, check out
truTV’s Crime Library at:
www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/trace/1.html
72
Fibers
Fibers
Fibers
Are considered class evidence

Have probative value
Are common trace evidence at a
crime scene
Can be characterized based on
comparison of both physical and
chemical properties
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company 7474

Fibers
Fabric
Fabric is made of fibers. Fibers

are made of twisted
filaments.
Types of fibers and fabric:
Natural—animal, vegetable,
or inorganic
Artificial—synthesized or
created from altered
natural sources

Fibers
Types of Fibers
Synthetic Natural
Rayon Silk
Nylon Cotton
Acetate Wool
Acrylic Mohair
Spandex Cashmere
Polyester

Fibers
Classification
Natural fibers are classified

according to their origin:
Vegetable or cellulose
Animal or protein
Mineral

Fibers
Cellulose Fibers
Cotton—vegetable fiber; strong,

tough, flexible, moisture-
absorbent, not shape-retentive
Rayon—chemically altered
cellulose; soft, lustrous, versatile
Cellulose acetate—cellulose that is
chemically altered to create an
entirely new compound not found
in nature

Fibers
Fiber Comparison
Can you describe the difference(s) between the cotton on

the left and the rayon on the right?
Fibers
Protein Fibers
Wool—animal fiber coming most

often from sheep, but may be goat
(mohair), rabbit (angora), camel,
alpaca, llama, or vicuña
Silk—insect fiber that is spun by a
silkworm to make its cocoon; the
fiber reflects light and has
insulating properties

Fibers
Mineral Fibers
Asbestos—a natural fiber that has been used in fire-resistant

substances
Rock wool—a manufactured mineral fiber
Fiberglass—a manufactured inorganic fiber

Fibers
Synthetic Fibers
Made from derivatives of petroleum, coal, and natural gas
Nylon—most durable of man-made fibers; extremely lightweight

Polyester—most widely used man-made fiber
Acrylic—provides warmth from a lightweight, soft, and resilient
fiber
Spandex—extreme elastic properties

Fibers
Fabric Production
Fabrics are composed of individual threads or yarns that are made of

fibers and are knitted, woven, bonded, crocheted, felted, knotted, or
laminated. Most are either woven or knitted. The degree of stretch,
absorbency, water repellence, softness, and durability are all individual
qualities of the different fabrics.

Fibers
Weave Terminology
Yarn—a continuous strand of fibers or filaments that may be twisted

together
Warp—lengthwise yarn
Weft—crosswise yarn
Blend—a fabric made up of two or
more different types of fibers

Fibers
Weave Patterns

Fibers
Plain Weave
The simplest and most common weave

pattern
The warp and weft yarns pass under
each other alternately
Design resembles a checkerboard

Fibers
Twill Weave
The warp yarn is passed over one

to three weft yarns before going
under one.
Makes a diagonal weave pattern.
Design resembles stair steps.
Denim is one of the most common
examples.

Fibers
Satin Weave
The yarn interlacing is not uniform

Creates long floats
Interlacing weave passes over four or
more yarns
Satin is the most obvious example

Fibers
Knitted Fabric
Knitted fabrics are made by

interlocking loops into a specific
arrangement. It may be one
continuous thread or a combination.
Either way, the yarn is formed into
successive rows of loops and then
drawn through another series of
loops to make the fabric.

Fibers
Polymers
Synthetic fibers are made of polymers, which are long chains of

repeating chemical units.
The word polymer means many (poly) units (mer).
The repeating units of a polymer are called monomers.
By varying the chemical structure of the monomers or by varying the
way they are joined together, polymers are created that have
different properties.
As a result of these differences, they can be distinguished from one
another forensically.

Fibers
Filament Cross Sections
R ound 4-lobed
Octalobal
T rilobal
Irregular
Dogbone or Multi-lobed
Dumbbell or Serrate
Synthetic fibers are forced out of a nozzle when they are hot, and
then they are woven. The holes of the nozzle are not necessarily
round; therefore, the fiber filament may have a unique shape in cross
section.

Fibers
Testing for Identification
Microscopic observation
Burning—observation of how a
fiber burns, the odor, color of
flame, color of smoke, and the
appearance of the residue
Thermal decomposition—gently
heating to break down the fiber
to the basic monomers
Chemical tests—solubility and
decomposition

Fibers
Testing for Identification
Density—the mass of an object

divided by the volume of the
object
Refractive index—measurement
of the bending of light as it
passes from air into a solid or
liquid
Fluorescence—absorption and
reemission of light; used for
comparing fibers as well as
spotting fibers for collection

Fibers
Dyes
Components that make up dyes can

be separated and matched to an
unknown.
There are more than 7,000 different
dye formulations.
Chromatography is used to separate
dyes for comparative analysis.
The way a fabric accepts a particular
dye may also be used to identify
and compare samples.

Fibers
Collection of Fiber Evidence
Bag clothing items individually in paper bags. Make sure that different
items are not placed on the same surface before being bagged.
Make tape lifts of exposed skin areas and any inanimate objects.
Removed fibers should be folded into a small sheet of paper and
stored in a paper bag.

Fibers
Fiber Evidence
Fiber evidence in court cases can be

used to connect the suspect to the
victim or to the crime scene. In the
case of Wayne Williams, fibers
weighed heavily on the outcome of
the case. Williams was convicted in
1982 based on carpet fibers that
were found in his home, in his car,
and on several murder victims.

Fibers
More about Fibers
For additional information about fibers and other trace evidence, check out
truTV’s Crime Library at:
www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/trace/1.html

Trace Evidence
98
Trace Evidence
Trace Evidence
Trace evidence is physical evidence
found in small amounts at a crime
scene. Common examples would be
hair, fiber, paint chips, body fluids,
stains, powders, explosive residue,
glass particles, vegetative matter,
metal particles, and soil. It may also
include more unusual types of
evidence.
99
Trace Evidence
Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical property: A characteristic that does not involve a change in the
identity of a substance, such as odor, color, boiling point, density,
refractive index
Chemical property: A characteristic that determines how a substance will

change into another substance with different physical properties
10
0
Trace Evidence
Metal Analysis
Bits of metal can be identified from their physical and chemical
properties.
Solid particles—microscopic examination, magnetism, malleability,
density, color, solubility, reactivity
Dissolved metals—separation by chromatography with comparison
of Rf values to known metals, specific reactions, and color tests
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1
Trace Evidence
Analysis of Metal Particles

A Qualitative Analysis Approach
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2
Trace Evidence
Trace Evidence: Qualitative Analysis

When investigators find substances at the scene of a crime and send
them to the laboratory for identification, the forensic chemist uses
several techniques or lab tests to identify them. One of these
techniques is qualitative analysis. For example:
A number of white powders that appear the same can be identified
by their physical and chemical properties.
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3
Trace Evidence
Qualitative Analysis
Microscopic Examination
10
4
Trace Evidence
Qualitative Analysis, continued

Check for:
Solubility
pH
Chemical reactions
• Color
• Precipitate formation
• Evolution of gas
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5
Trace Evidence
Flame Colors
Many metal salts show a distinct
color when heated.
Sometimes this property can be

used in an analysis.
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6
Trace Evidence
A Historical Crime
In 1912, Emile Gourbin was a bank clerk in Lyons, France. He came under
suspicion of strangling his girlfriend, Marie Latelle. Gourbin was
arrested but had what appeared to be an airtight alibi. Edmond Locard
went to Gourbin’s cell and removed scrapings from under his
fingernails. The scrapings contained tissue that possibly came from
Marie’s neck, but this was not provable. Locard noticed that the tissue
was coated with a pink dust, which he identified as rice starch. On the
particles he found bismuth, magnesium stearate, zinc oxide, and a
reddish iron oxide pigment called Venetian red. Examination of the face
powder used by Marie revealed that a powder prepared for her by a
Lyons druggist was similar in composition. In these days of mass-
produced face powder, this evidence would have far less significance.
However, in 1912, because of the special preparation, it led to the
confession of Gourbin.
10
7
Trace Evidence
A More Recent Crime

A bank robber was startled by an alarm just as the teller handed her
the money. She grabbed it and, in her haste to get away, ran
smack-dab into a glass door. Nevertheless, she recovered and
got away. Subsequent examination of the door revealed a red
lipstick imprint of the perpetrator’s mouth. Police later picked up
a suspect, but needed evidence to link her to the robbery. Are lip
prints unique enough to tie the suspect to the crime?
http://www.hbo.com/autopsy/episode/
episode_6_the_telltale_imprint.html
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8
Trace Evidence
Lip Prints
Lip prints are different and can be used to identify suspects.
There are several general patterns:
10
9
Trace Evidence
Chromatography of Lipsticks
The lipstick used by the suspect
could also have been compared
to the residue on the door.
Thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
can be used to separate the
components of a lipstick. The
chromatograms can then be
compared for a possible match.
11
0
Trace Evidence
Paint
Paint can be used as evidence in hit-
and-run cases.
The layers of different paints in a

cross section may be unique.
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1
Soil and Glass Analysis
You will be able

Objectives, continued to:
Make density measurements
on very small particles.
Use logic to reconstruct
events.
Use technology and
mathematics to improve
investigations and
communications.
Identify questions and
concepts that guide
scientific investigations.
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3
Forensic Geology
The legal application of earth and soil science
Characterization of earthen materials that have been transferred
between objects or locations and the analysis of possible origin
or sources
11
4
Forensic Geologist Tools
Binocular microscopes
Petrographic microscopes
X-ray diffraction
Scanning electron microscopes
Microchemical analysis
11
5
Forensic Geology History
1887–1893—Sir Arthur Conan Doyle wrote about scientific ideas

and techniques for solving crimes in his writings of Sherlock
Holmes. This included information about soil and its
composition which had never actually been used.
1893—An Austrian criminal investigator, Hans Gross, wrote that

there should be a study of “dust, dirt on shoes and spots on
cloth.” He observed, “Dirt on shoes can often tell us more about
where the wearer of those shoes had last been than toilsome
inquiries.”
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6
Forensic Geology History, continued

1904—Georg Popp, a German forensic scientist, presented the first
example of earth materials used as evidence in a criminal case,
the strangulation of Eva Disch.
1910—Edmond Locard, a forensic geologist, was most interested in

the fact that dust was transferred from the crime scene to the
criminal. This helped to establish his principle of transfer.
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Soil
A. Definition—naturally deposited materials

that cover the earth’s surface and are
capable of supporting plant growth
B. The Earth
• 75 percent—oceans, seas, and lakes

• 15 percent—deserts, polar ice caps, and mountains
• 10 percent—suitable for agriculture
11
8
Soil, continued
C. Formation
• Living matter—plants, animals, microorganisms
• Inorganic materials
• Climate
• Parent materials
• Relief—slope and land form
• Time
11
9
Soil, continued
D. Profile E. Composition
• Topsoil • Sand
• Subsoil
• Silt
• Parent material
• Clay
• Organic matter
12
0
Soil, continued
F. Nutrients—macro G. Nutrients—micro
• Nitrogen • Manganese
• Phosphorus • Iron
• Potassium • Boron
• Calcium • Copper
• Magnesium • Zinc
• Sulfur • Molybdenum
• Chlorine
12
1
Soil Comparisons
May establish a relationship or link to the crime, the victim, or the
suspect(s)
Physical properties—density, magnetism, particle size, mineralogy
Chemical properties—pH, trace elements
12
2
Probative Value of Soil

Types of earth material are virtually unlimited. They have a wide
distribution and change over short distances.
As a result, the statistical probability of a given sample having
properties the same as another is very small.
Evidential value of soil can be excellent.
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3
Increasing Probative Value
Rare or unusual minerals
Rocks
Fossils
Manufactured particles
12
4
Minerals
More than 2,000 have been identified.
Twenty or so are commonly found in
soils; most soil samples contain
only three to five.
Characteristics for identification—
size, density, color, luster,
fracture, streak, magnetism
12
5
Rocks
Aggregates of minerals
Types
• Natural—like granite
• Man-made—like concrete
Formation
• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic
12
6
Palynology
The study of pollen and spores
Important to know:
What is produced in a given area
The dispersal pattern
Variation in size and weight
For additional information about palynology, visit:

http://science.uniserve.edu.au/faces/milne/milne.html
12
7
Soil Evidence
Class characteristics—the type of soil may have similar characteristics at
the primary and/or secondary crime scene, on the suspect or on the
victim
Individual characteristics—only if the soil has an unusual or specialized

ingredient such as pollen, seeds, vegetation, or fragments
12
8
Sand
Sand is the term applied to natural
particles with a grain diameter
between 1/16 mm and 2 mm.
Its color and contents are dependent
upon the parent rock and
surrounding plant and animal life.
(The photo on the right shows

color differences in sand from
six locations around the world.)
12
9
Sand Characteristics
Composition is based on the material of the source; also gives the
sand its color
Texture is determined by the way the source was transported
• Shape
• Grain size
• Sorting
13
0
Forensic Geology in the News

A nine-year-old’s body was found in a wooded area along a river in
Lincoln County, South Dakota. A forensic geologist collected soil
samples from the fenders of a suspect’s truck and from the area
where the body was found. Both soils contained grains of a blue
mineral that turned out to be gahnite, a rare mineral that had never
been reported in South Dakota. As a result, the soil tied the
suspect to the crime.
Check out other cases at:

www.forensicgeology/science.htm
13
1
Characteristics of Glass
Hard, amorphous solid
Usually transparent
Primarily composed of silica, with
various amounts of elemental
oxides
Brittle
Exhibits conchoidal fracture
13
2
Common Types
Soda-lime—used in plate and window glass, glass containers, and
electric lightbulbs
Soda-lead—fine tableware and art objects
Borosilicate—heat-resistant, like Pyrex
Silica—used in chemical ware
Tempered—used in side windows of cars
Laminated—used in the windshield of most cars
13
3
Physical Characteristics
Density—mass divided by volume
Refractive index (RI)—the measure of light bending due to a change in
velocity when traveling from one medium to another
Fractures
Color
Thickness
Fluorescence
Markings—striations, dimples, etc.
13
4
Density
Type of Glass Density
window 2.46–2.49
headlight 2.47–2.63
Pyrex 2.23–2.36
lead glass 2.9–5.9
porcelain 2.3–2.5
13
5
Determination of Refractive Index

Immersion method—lower fragments into liquids whose refractive
index is different
Match point—when the refractive index of the glass is equal to that of
the liquid
Becke line—a halo-like glow that appears around an object immersed in
a liquid. It disappears when the refractive index of the liquid matches
the refractive index of the object (the match point).
13
6
Determination of Refractive Index, continued

The refractive index of a high-boiling liquid, usually a silicone oil,
changes with temperature.
This occurs in an apparatus called a hot stage which is attached to a
microscope. Increasing the temperature allows the disappearance of
the Becke line to be observed.
At match point, temperature is noted and refractive index of the liquid is
read from a calibration chart.
13
7
The Becke Line
The Becke line is a “halo” that can be seen on the inside of the glass
on the left, indicating that the glass has a higher refractive index
than the liquid medium. The Becke line as seen on the right is on
the outside of the glass, indicating just the opposite.
13
8
Refractive Index
Liquid RI Glass RI
Water 1.333 Vitreous silica 1.458
Olive oil 1.467 Headlight 1.47–1.49
Glycerin 1.473 Window 1.51–1.52
Castor oil 1.482 Bottle 1.51–1.52
Clove oil 1.543 Optical 1.52–1.53
Bromobenzene 1.560 Quartz 1.544–1.553
Bromoform 1.597 Lead 1.56–1.61
Cinnamon oil 1.619 Diamond 2.419
13
9
Fracture Patterns
Radial fracture lines radiate out from the origin of the impact; they
begin on the opposite side of the force.
Concentric fracture lines are circular lines around the point of impact;
they begin on the same side as the force.
3R rule—Radial cracks form a right angle on the reverse side of the
force.
14
0
Sequencing
A high-velocity projectile always
leaves a wider hole at the exit
side of the glass.
Cracks terminate at
intersections with others.
This can be used to
determine the order in which
the fractures occurred.
14
1
Glass as Evidence
Class characteristics: physical
and chemical properties such
as refractive index, density,
color, chemical composition
Individual characteristics: if the
fragments can fit together like
pieces of a puzzle, the source
can be considered unique
14
2
Considerations for Collection

The collector must consider that fragments within a questioned
sample may have multiple origins. If possible, the collector should
attempt an initial separation based on physical properties.
The collector must consider the possibility that there may be a
physical match to a known sample (e.g., a piece of glass to a
fractured vehicle headlamp). When an attempt to make a physical
match is made at the site of collection, the collector should take
precautions to avoid mixing of the known and questioned samples.
Any glass samples collected should be documented, marked (if
necessary), packaged, and labeled.
—Forensic Science Communications

14
3
Collecting the Sample

The glass sample should consist of the largest amount that can be
practically collected from each broken object and packaged separately.
The sample should be removed from the structure (e.g., window frame,
light assembly). The inside and outside surfaces of the known sample
should be labeled if a determination of direction of breakage or
reconstruction of the pane is desired.
When multiple broken glass sources are identified, it is necessary to sample
all sources.
A sample should be collected from various locations throughout the broken
portion of the object in order to be as representative as possible.
The sample should be collected with consideration being given to the
presence of other types of evidence on that sample (e.g., fibers, blood).
—Forensic Science Communications

14
4

Unit 1 Overview of Evidence

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Unit 1 Overview of Evidence

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Types of Evidence

Photos from Kendall Hunt Publishing

Lessons for the JonBenet Ramsey

Police in Boulder, Colorado

The police only blocked off

The victim’s father discovered

Once the body was

Many hours passed

Physical evidence is any object or material that is relevant in a

As a result of the influences on

Is generally more reliable than testimonial evidence

Can prove that a crime has been committed

Can corroborate or refute testimony

Can link a suspect with a victim or with a crime scene

Can establish the identity of persons associated with a crime

Can allow reconstruction of events of a crime

A forensic scientist compares the questioned or unknown sample from

Types of Physical Evidence

—Henry C. Lee and Jerry Labriola, Famous Crimes Revisited, 2001

Examples of Transient Evidence

Examples of Pattern Evidence

Blood spatter Clothing or article distribution

Examples of Conditional Evidence

Classification of Evidence by Nature

Chemical—fibers, glass, soil, gunpowder, metals, minerals, narcotics, drugs,

Physical—fingerprints, footprints, shoeprints, handwriting, firearms, tire marks,

Miscellaneous—laundry marks, voice analysis, polygraph, photography, stress

Fingerprints Blood DNA Typing

Class—common to a group of objects or persons

Class vs. Individual Evidence

The large piece of glass fits

Class vs. Individual Evidence, continued

Which examples do you think could be

2. Preservation through the collection and proper packaging of

Forensic Investigations, continued

4. Comparison of class characteristics measured against those of

Forensic Investigations, continued

5. Individualization in demonstrating that the sample is unique, even

6. Interpretation—giving meaning to all the information

7. Reconstruction of the events in the case

Probability and Class Evidence

 In a school of 1,600 students, how common

How many students would be expected to be

If this percent is representative of the whole school,

How many students would be wearing blue

How many students in the school would be

How many students in school are likely to be

 Now determine how many students would be likely to have

Now let’s calculate how 4 pieces of class

How many students in school are likely to

A pistol was found in a theater where a man

Pieces of a broken bottle were found at the

Some blond hairs were found on the gloves

A bloody knife has been found in the

Are tire impression such as these individual

Can it be determined whether these bullets

Some powder was found in a plastic bag in a

A pair of latex gloves was found at the scene

Depends on the state/community

Collect trace or entire object?

Suppose a glove appears to have

Should the entire glove be packaged?

Considerations before packaging entire object:

 Object may be too large or difficult to move