INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

BSC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

7TH SEMESTER

Fall Semester 2023

NUTECH Islamabad
Text Book
Internal Combustion Engines
By V. Ganesan, 3rd Edition
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company

Reference Books
 Applied Thermodynamics

by Eastop & Mckoncky 5th Edition

 Internal Combustion Engine Fundamental

by John B.L heywood

 Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution,

By Edward F. Obert
2
Carburetion and Fuel Injection Systems
FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS IN SI ENGINES

Carburetion

Perhaps soon to be obsolete?

MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS
 Engine induction and fuel system must prepare a fuel-air
mixture that satisfies the requirements of the engine over its
entire operating regime.
 Optimum air-fuel ratio for an SI engine is that which gives
1. required power output
2. with lowest fuel consumption
3. consistent with smooth and reliable operation

5
MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS
(CONTINUED)
The constraints of emissions may dictate a different air-fuel
ratio
also require recycling some exhaust gas(EGR)

Relative proportions of fuel and air that give the above

requirements depend on engine speed and load.

Mixture strength is given in terms of air-fuel or fuel-air ratio

or equivalence ratio.

6
 MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS
(CONTINUED)
Mixture requirements are different for full load (wide-open throttle or WOT) and for
part-load operation.

At full load, complete utilization of inducted air to obtain maximum power for a
given displaced volume is the critical issue.

At part-load at a given speed, efficient utilization of fuel is the critical issue.

As seen in the next slide, at WOT, maximum power for a given volumetric efficiency
is obtained at a mixture slightly richer than stoichiometric, Φ≈1.1

7
8
 MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS (CONTINUED)
At part-load (or part-throttle) it is advantageous to dilute the fuel-air mixture with excess
air or with recycled exhaust gas. This dilution improves fuel conversion efficiency for
three reasons:
1. The expansion stroke work is increased for a given expansion ratio due to the change
in thermodynamic properties,
2. For a given mean effective pressure, the intake pressure increases with increasing
dilution, so pumping work decreases,
3. Heat losses to the walls are reduced because the burned gas temperatures are lower.
In the absence of strict NOx emission control, excess air is the obvious diluent at part load
and the engine runs lean

9
 REQUIREMENTS WITH EMISSION
CONTROL
For control of NO, HC and CO, operating the engine with stoichiometric mixture is
advantageous so that a three-way catalyst can be used for emission control. In such a
case, for further decrease in NO the diluent used is EGR.

Amount used will depend on the EGR tolerance of the engine at a given speed and
load based on the details of the engine combustion process.

Increasing excess air or EGR will slow down the combustion process and increase
combustion variability so as load decreases, less dilution must be provided and at
idle, no EGR may be used and mixture will have to be made rich.

10
11
WHAT IS CARBURETION?
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing
the proper amount of fuel with air before it is admitted into the engine
cylinder.

Comes from the words “car” and “burette” because the carburetor
“meters” the appropriate quantity of liquid fuel (like a burette) and
mixed it with air before sending the mixture into the engine cylinder.

12
 FACTORS AFFECTING
CARBURETION
1. Engine speed. In a 4-stroke engine running at 3000 rev/min, the intake will take about
10 ms during which the fuel has to evaporate, mix with air and be inducted into the
engine.

2. Vaporization characteristics of the fuel. Will require a volatile fuel for quick
evaporation and mixing with air.

3. The temperature of the in coming air. Must be high enough to be able to evaporate the
fuel and yet not too high as to reduce mass of fresh charge.

4. Design of the carburetor. This will help in proper introduction of fuel into the air
stream and provide proper distribution of the mixture to the various cylinders.

13
14
CALCULATION OF AIR-
FUEL RATIO
Applying the steady flow energy equation to sections A-A and B-B per unit
mass flow of air:
1 2
q  w  h2  h1   C2  C12
2
 
Here, q and w are the heat and work transfers from the entrance to the throat
and h and C stand for enthalpy and velocity respectively.
If we assume reversible adiabatic conditions, and there is no work transfer,
q=0, w=0, and if approach velocity C1≈0 we get

15
 C2  2h1  h2 
If air is assumed to be a perfect gas we get
h  c pT hence we can write
C2  2c p T1  T2 
Assume flow from inlet to throat to be isentropic
 1
T2  p2  
then   
T1  p1 
 1
 
  p2  
T1  T2  T1 1   
  p1  
  16
 Substituting for T1 – T2 from Eq. 5 in Eq. 3, we get

 1
 
  p2  
C 2  2c p T1 1    ( 6)
  p1  
 

By the continuity equation we can write down the theoretical mass flow rate of air
.
m a  1 A1C1   2 A2 C 2 (7 )
where A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas at the air inlet (point 1)
and venturi throat (point 2).
To calculate the mass flow rate of air at the throat, we have assumed the flow to be
isentropic till the throat so the equation relating p and v (or ρ) can be used.
 
p1v1  p2 v2 (8 A)
1
p1 p2  p2  

 
(8B )  2  1  
1 2  p1  17
  1
1
 
.  p2    p  
m a  1   A2 2c p T1 1   2   (9)
 p1    p1  
 

For a perfect gas we have p1

1  (9 A)
RT1

 1
1
 
.  p 2   p1   p2  
Thus ma    A2 2c p T1 1    (10 A)
 p1  RT1   p1  
 

and rearranging the above equation we have

 1
 2

. A2 p1   p2    p2  
ma  2c p      (10 B )
R T1  p1   p1  
 
18
 Since the fluid flowing in the intake is air, we can put in the approximate
values of R = 287 J/kgK, cp = 1005 J/kgK and γ = 1.4 at 300K.
1.43 1.71
. A2 p1  p 2   p2 
ma  0.1562     
T1  p1   p1 

A2 p1
 0.1562  (11)
T1
1.43 1.71
 p2   p2 
where       
 p1   p1 

Here, pressure p is in N/m2, area A is in m2,and temperature T is in K.

If we take the ambient temperature T1 = 300Kand ambient pressure
p1 = 105 N/m2, then
.
ma  901.8 A2 (12)
19
Equation 11 gives the theoretical mass flow rate of air. The actual mass flow rate,
, can be obtained by multiplying the equation by the coefficient of discharge
.
for the venturi, Cd,a. Thus
ma . A2 p1
ma  0.1562 C d ,a  (13)
. T1
ma
where C d ,a  .
(14)
ma
The coefficient of discharge and area are both constant for a given venturi,
thus
. p1
ma   (15)
T1
Since we have to determine the air-fuel ratio, we now calculate the fuel flow
rate.
The fuel is a liquid before mixing with the air, it can be taken to be incompressible.

We can apply Bernoulli’s equation between the atmospheric conditions prevailing

at the top of the fuel surface in the float bowl, which corresponds to point 1 and
the point where the fuel will flow out, at the venturi, which corresponds to point 2.
Fuel flow will take place because of the drop in pressure at point 1 due to the
venturi effect. Thus 20
 p1 p2 C 2f
   gz (16)
f f 2
where ρf is the density of the fuel in kg/m3, Cf is the velocity of the fuel
at the exit of the fuel nozzle (fuel jet), and z is the depth of the jet exit
below the level of fuel in the float bowl. This quantity must always be
above zero otherwise fuel will flow out of the jet at all times. The value
of z is usually of the order of 10 mm.
From Eq. 16 we can obtain an expression for the fuel velocity at the jet exit as

 p1  p 2 
C f  2  gz  (17)
  f 
Applying the continuity equation for the fuel, we can obtain the theoretical
. .
mass flow rate, 
mf mf   f A f C f

 A f 2  f  p1  p 2   f gz  (18)
21
where Af is the exit area of the fuel jet in m2. If Cd,f is the coefficient of discharge
.
of the fuel nozzle (jet) given by
mf
Cd , f  .
(19)
mf
.
then m f  C d , f A f 2  f  p1  p 2   f gz  (20)
.
Since Air A ma
  . (21)
Fuel F m
f

A C d ,a A2 p1
 0.1562 (22)
F Cd , f A f 2  f T1  p1  p 2   f gz 

If we put p  p1  p 2 , we get the following equation for the air-fuel ratio

a
22
 A C d ,a A2 a p a
  (23)
F Cd , f A f f pa   f gz 
1
 1
where  2
 2

  p2    p2  

    
    p1   p1  
     (24)
   1   p2  
 
1    
p
 1
 
p a
For the normal carburetor operating range, where  0. 1
p1
, the effects of compressibility which reduce Φ below 1.0 are small.
 A
The equivalence ratio, φ, where  
 F s
 (25)
A 23
F
  A
  1

 F  s C d ,a A2 a   f gz  2
is given by  1   (26)
 Cd , f A f f  p a 
In Eq. 22, if we take T1 = 300K and p1 = 105 N/m2 then

A C d ,a A2 
 901.8 (27)
F Cd , f A f 2  f  p1  p 2   f gz 
The coefficient of discharge defined in Eq 19 represents the effect of all deviations
from the ideal one-dimensional isentropic flow. It is influenced by many factors of
which the most important are: 1.Fluid mass flow rate,
2.Orifice length-to-diameter ratio,
3.Orifice area-to-approach area ratio,
4.Orifice surface area,
5.Orifice surface roughness,
6.Orifice inlet and exit chamfers,
7.Fluid specific gravity,
8.Fluid viscosity, and
9.Fluid surface tension. 24
The use of the orifice Reynolds number

VDo
Re o  ( 28)

as a correlating parameter for the coefficient of discharge accounts for the
effects of mass flow rate, fluid density and viscosity, and length scale to a
good approximation. The discharge coefficient of a typical carburetor main
fuel-metering system orifice increases smoothly with increasing orifice
Reynolds number, Reo.

25
AIR-FUEL RATIO NEGLECTING
COMPRESSIBILITY OF AIR
 If we assume air to be incompressible, then we can apply Bernoulli’s equation to air flow also.
Since initial velocity is assumed zero, we have

Thus

2
p1 C p2
  2
(29)
a a 2
Thus  p1  p 2 
C 2  2  (30)
 a 
26
 .
Applying the continuity equation for the fuel, we can obtain the theoretical mass
m , from .
flow rate,
a ma   a A2 C 2

 A2 2  a  p1  p 2  (31)
where A2 is the venturi in m2.. If Cd,a is the coefficient of discharge of the
venturi given by ma
C d ,a  .
(32)
ma
.
.
then m a  C d ,a A2 2  a  p1  p 2  (33)
.
Air A ma
Since
  . (34)
Fuel F m
f
27
 A C d ,a A2  a  p1  p 2 
 (35)
F Cd , f A f  f  p1  p 2   f gz 

A C d ,a A2

a  p1  p 2  (35 A)
F Cd , f A f f p1  p 2   f gz 

If we assume z = 0, then

A C d ,a A2 a
 (36)
F Cd , f A f f

28
 CARBURETOR PERFORMANCE

 In Eq. 26, the terms A1, A2, ρa, and ρf are all constant for a given carburetor, fuel, and ambient
conditions. Also, for very low flows, Δpa » ρfgz. However, the discharge coefficients Cd,a and Cd,f and Φ,
all vary with flow rate. Hence, the equivalence ratio delivered by an elementary carburetor is not
constant.
 Figure shows the performance of an elementary carburetor. The top graph shows the variation
of Cd,a and Cd,f and Φ with the venturi pressure drop. For Δpa ≤ ρfgz, there is no fuel flow. Once fuel
starts to flow, the fuel flow rate increases more rapidly than the air flow rate. The carburetor delivers a
mixture of increasing equivalence ratio as the flow rate increases.

29
30
 DISCUSSION OF FIGURE
 Suppose the venturi and fuel orifice (jet) are sized to give a stoichiometric
mixture at an air flow rate corresponding to 1 kN/m2 venturi pressure drop
(middle graph of Fig). At higher flow rates, the carburetor will deliver a fuel-
rich mixture. At very high flow rates the carburetor will deliver an essentially
constant equivalence ratio. At lower air flow rates, the mixture delivered leans
out rapidly.

 Thus, the elementary carburetor cannot provide the variation in mixture ratio
which the engine requires over the complete load range at any given speed.

31
SUMMARY OF THE DEFICIENCIES OF
THE ELEMENTARY CARBURETOR
1. At low loads, the mixture becomes leaner; the engine requires the mixture to be enriched at
low loads. The mixture is richest at idle.
2. At intermediate loads, the equivalence ratio increases slightly as the air flow rate increases; the
engine requires an almost constant equivalence ratio.
3. As the air flow approaches the maximum (WOT) value, the equivalence ratio remains
essentially constant; the engine requires an equivalence ratio of about 1.1 at maximum engine
power.
4. The elementary carburetor cannot compensate for transient phenomena in the intake
manifold. It also cannot provide a rich mixture during engine starting and warm-up.
5. It cannot adjust to changes in ambient air density due to changes in altitude.

32
MODERN CARBURETOR DESIGN
The changes required in the elementary carburetor so that it provides the
equivalence ratio required at various air flow rates are as follows.
1. The main metering system must be compensated to provide a constant
lean or stoichiometric mixture over 20 to 80% of the air flow range.
2. An idle system must be added to meter the fuel flow at idle and light
loads to provide a rich mixture.
3. An enrichment system must be provided so that the engine can get a rich
mixture as WOT conditions is approached and maximum power can be
obtained.
4. An accelerator pump must be provided so that additional fuel can be
introduced into the engine only when the throttle is suddenly opened.
5. A choke must be added to enrich the mixture during cold starting and
warm-up to ensure that a combustible mixture is provided to each
cylinder at the time of ignition.
6. Altitude compensation is necessary to adjust the fuel flow which makes
the mixture rich when air density is lowered.
7. Increase in the magnitude of the pressure drop available for controlling
the fuel flow is provided by introducing boost venturis (Venturis in
series) or Multiple-barrel carburetors (Venturis in parallel).
33
SIZE OF THE CARBURETOR
 The size of a carburetor is generally given in terms of the diameter of the venturi tube in mm
and the jet size in hundredths of a millimeter. The calibrated jets have a stamped number
which gives the flow in ml/min under a head of 500 mm of pure benzol. For a venturi of 30 to
35 mm size (having a jet size which is one sixteenth of venturi size) the pressure difference
(p1 − p2) is about 50 mm of Hg. The velocity at throat is about 90 - 100 m/s and the
coefficient of discharge for venturi Cda is usually 0.85.
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A
CARBURETOR
 carburetor consists essentially of the following parts, viz.
 (i) fuel strainer
 (ii) float chamber
 (iii) main fuel metering and idling nozzles
 (iv) choke and throttle
EXAMPLE 1
 A simple jet carburetor is required to supply 5 kg of air and 0.5 kg of fuel per minute. The fuel
specific gravity is 0.75. The air is initially at 1 bar and 300 K. Calculate the throat diameter of
the choke for a flow velocity of 100 m/s. Velocity coefficient is 0.8. If the pressure drop across
the fuel metering orifice is 0.80 of that of the choke, calculate orifice diameter assuming, Cdf
= 0.60 and γ = 1.4
EXAMPLE 2
 A four-cylinder, four-stroke square engine running at 40 rev/s has a carburetor venturi with a 3
cm throat. Assuming the bore to be 10 cm, volumetric efficiency of 75%, the density of air to
be 1.15 and coefficient of air flow to be 0.75. Calculate the suction at the throat.
Fuel injection system in SI
engines

38
 The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection
system. A single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection
(TBI), has the injector nozzles in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine.
Fuel is sprayed into the top center of the intake manifold .

39
 A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector
in the port (air-fuel passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into
each intake port and toward each intake valve. Thereby, the term
multipoint (more than one location) fuel injection is used.

40
 An indirect injection system
sprays fuel into the engine intake manifold.
Most gasoline injection
systems are of this type.
 Direct injection forces fuel
into the engine combustion
chambers. Diesel injection
systems are direct type.

So
Gasoline electronic Direct Injection System
is Classified as : multi-point and Direct injection
systems

41
42
SYSTEM COMPONENT :
 Fuel tank
 Electric fuel pump
 Fuel filter
 Electronic control unit
 Common rail and Pressure sensor
 Electronic Injectors
 fuel line

43
 FUEL TANK
 is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an engine
system in which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released
(pressurized gas) into an engine.
 Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following:
* Safe (UL Approved) fuel storage, there is some concern that UL
(Underwriters Laboratories) is not the final arbiter of safety.
* Filling (the fuel tank must be filled in a secure way) No Sparks.
* Storage of fuel (the system must contain a given quantity of fuel and
must avoid leakage and limit evaporative emissions)

44
* Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, Gauging (the remaining
quantity of fuel in the tank must be measured or evaluated)
* Venting (if over-pressure is not allowed, the fuel vapors must be managed through
valves)
* Feeding of the engine (through a pump)
* Anticipate potentials for damage and provide safe survival potential.

45
 ELECTRIC FUEL PUMP
 An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. The pump must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi
depending on the application) so the injectors can spray the fuel into the engine.
 Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank,
 Some vehicles may even have two fuel pumps (a transfer pump inside the tank, and a
main fuel pump outside).

46
 Electric fuel pumps come in a variety of designs. Some older applications use a positive
displacement "roller cell" pump.
 This type uses rollers mounted on an offset disc that rotates inside a steel ring.
 Fuel is drawn into the spaces (cells) between the rollers and pushed along from the
pump inlet to the outlet.
 This type of pump can generate very high pressure, and the flow rate tends to be
constant. But the output comes in pulses, so a muffler is often mounted in the fuel line
after the pump to dampen pressure pulses.
 A roller cell pump may also be mounted outside the fuel tank, and used with a second
low pressure supply pump mounted inside the fuel tank.

47
 Most newer vehicles use a "turbine" style fuel pump. A turbine pump has an impeller
ring attached to the motor. The blades in the impeller push the fuel through the pump
as the impeller spins. This type of pump is not a positive-displacement pump, so it
produces no pulsations, runs very smoothly and quietly. It is also less complicated to
manufacture and is very durable. Some aftermarket pump supplies use this type of
pump to replace the older designs.

48
 FUEL FILTER
 The fuel filter is the fuel system's primary line of defense against dirt, debris and small particles of rust that flake
off the inside of the fuel tank .
 many filters for fuel injected engines trap particles as small as 10 to 40 microns in size.
 fuel filter normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper.

49
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL UNIT
 In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any
embedded system that controls one or more of the electrical systems or subsystems in a
motor vehicle.
 An engine control unit (ECU), also known as power-train control module (PCM), or
engine control module (ECM) is a type of electronic control unit that determines the
amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters an internal combustion engine needs to
keep running.
 It does this by reading values from multidimensional maps which contain values calculated
by sensor devices monitoring the engine.

50
 WORKING OF ECU
 Control of fuel injection: ECU will determine the quantity of fuel to inject based on a
number of parameters. If the throttle pedal is pressed further down, this will open the
throttle body and allow more air to be pulled into the engine. The ECU will inject more
fuel according to how much air is passing into the engine. If the engine has not warmed
up yet, more fuel will be injected .
 Control of ignition timing : A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate
combustion in the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of the
spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy.

51
 Control of idle speed : Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the ECU.
The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which plays a primary
role in the engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing.
Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an idle air bypass control
stepper motor.

52
 COMMON RAIL AND PRESSURE
SENSOR
 The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a
common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is
stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure
fuel.

53
 The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically
activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or
hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure.
 Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically
actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure
in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate.
 If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and
rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.

54
55
 ELECTRONIC INJECTORS

 The injectors can survive the excessive temperature and pressure of combustion by using the fuel
that passes through it as a coolant

56
 The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized fuel as
long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil.

 When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the combustion
chamber .

 Depending on engine operating condition ,injection quantity will vary .

57
 FUEL LINE
 Fuel line hoses carry gasoline from the tank to the fuel pump, to the fuel filter, and to the
fuel injection system. While much of the fuel lines are rigid tube, sections of it are made
of rubber hose, which absorb engine and road vibrations.
 There are two basic types of fuel hose: Fuel and oil hoses that meet the SAE 30R7
standard, and fuel injection hose that meets the requirements of SAE 30R9.

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 GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION
 In internal combustion engines, gasoline direct injection is a variant of fuel injection
employed in modern two- and four- stroke petrol engines.
 The petrol/gasoline is highly pressurized, and injected via a common rail fuel line
directly into the combustion chamber of each cylinder, as opposed to conventional multi-
point fuel injection that happens in the intake tract, or cylinder port.

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HOW SYSTEM
WORK:

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 When the driver turns the ignition key on, the power train control module (PCM)
energizes a relay that supplies voltage to the fuel pump. The motor inside the pump
starts to spin and runs for a few seconds to build pressure in the fuel system. A timer in
the PCM limits how long the pump will run until the engine starts.
 Fuel is drawn into the pump through an inlet tube and mesh filter sock
 The fuel then exits the pump through a one-way check valve and is pushed toward the

engine through the fuel line and filter.

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