Measurements and Data

Presentation
 Objectives
On completion of the unit you should be able to:
 identify the number of significant figures in a
measurement.
 round off the results of calculations to the correct
number of significant figures.
 express measurements in scientific notation with
the correct number of significant figures.
 identify the SI units commonly used to measure
mass, volume, length and temperature.
 define the commonly used metric prefixes.

 perform conversions using conversion factors.

 Understand the differences between precision and

accuracy
 Understand the cause of systematic and random
errors
 Metric System (SI units)
 Scientists from around the world use one set of
units to communicate information. This set of
units is known as the International System of
Units, or more commonly referred to as the SI
system.
 There are many SI base units of measurements.
For this course, we will concentrate on the 5 base
units listed below:
• For a measurement of MASS, the base unit is
kilogram.
• For a measurment of LENGTH, the base unit is meter.
• For a measurement of VOLUME, the base unit is liter.
• For a measurement of TIME, the base unit is second.
• For a measurement of TEMPERATURE, the base unit is
kelvin.
 In the SI system, prefixes are used to represent
multiples of 10 or fractions of 10 of the
base units. The following table summarizes the
basic prefixes that you should know.

PREFIX MULTIPLE SCIENTIFIC NOTATION ABBREVIATION

mega- 1,000,000 106 M

kilo- 1,000 103 k

deci- 0.1 10-1 d

centi- 0.01 10-2 c

milli- 0.001 10-3 m

micro- 0.000001 10-6 µ

nano- 0.000000001 10-9 n

 e.g. SI prefix for the base unit of g

MULTIPLE / SCIENTIFIC
PREFIX Gram Equivalent
NOTATION

mega- 1,000,000 or 106 1 Mg = 1,000,000 gram

kilo- 1,000 or 103 1 kg = 1,000 gram

deci- 0.1or 10-1 1 dg = 0.1gram

centi- 0.01 or 10-2 1 cg = 0.01gram

milli- 0.001or 10-3 1 mg = 0.001gram

micro- 0.000001or 10-6 1 µg = 0.000001gram

nano- 0.000000001or 10-9 1 ng = 0.000000001gram

 Scientific Notation
 Scientific notation is a very useful system
of writing figures that are extremely large
or extremely small. Scientific notation
uses exponents to express figures.
 For example,
• 1,000,000 can be written as 1 x 106
• This is ten raised to the power of six
 Similarly,
• 0.000001 can be written as 1 x 10-6
• This is ten raised to the power of negative six
 Suppose we have a measurement of 6765.44 g and we
wish to express this measurement in scientific notation. We
simply move the decimal over to the LEFT until there is
one digit (from 1 to 9) to the left of the decimal point.
Here, we move the decimal place three places to the left.
Therefore, in scientific notation,

6765.44 g = 6.76544 x 103 g.

 Suppose we have a measurement of 0.000004334 cm and

we wish to express this measurement in scientific notation.
We simply move the decimal over to the RIGHT until there
is one digit (from 1 to 9) to the left of the decimal point.
Here, we move the decimal place six places to the right.
Therefore, in scientific notation,

0.000004334 cm = 4.334 x 10-6 cm.

 Dimensional analysis
 Many calculations in chemistry require that we
convert quantities from one set of units to
another. Whether we are trying to convert
between the British system of units and the SI
system of units, or within the SI system of units,
we can do this by using conversion factors.
 For examples,
• If we wish to convert between meter and inch, we would
need the conversion factor 1 meter = 39 inches.
• If we wish to convert between kilogram and pound, we
would need the conversion factor 1 kilogram = 2.2
pounds.
• If we wish to convert between liter and milliliter, we
would need the conversion factor 1 liter = 1000
milliliter.
 The approach to problem solving via inspecting
the units of measurements is called dimensional
analysis. The basic setup is summarized in the
following steps:
• Identify the unit in the given quantity of measurement.
This is your information given.
• Identify the unit that you need to present the answer.
This is your information sought.
• Figure out the conversion factor to convert the unit
from I to II and write the conversion factor as a fraction.
• Set up the problem as shown below to ensure that units
cancel in such a way that you are left with the unit in II.

(information given) x (conversion factor(s)) =

information sought
 How to convert 0.5 mg in μg ?

information given 0.5 mg

conversion factor

information sought (answer) ? µg

 Question 1
• 2 wart = 1 querk, 3 querk = 1 gag, 5
gag = 6 nerf, dan 4 nerf = 5 wigs.
• How many wart in 1 wig?

 Question 2
• If an athlete run 100 yards in 10.5 sec,
how fast did he run in miles/hour?
(1760 ela = 1 batu) (1 hr = 3600 s)
 Question 3
• If the price of a piece of land is RM
10/m2, what is the total cost if the total
area is 10 km2?

 Question 4
• Convert a density of 1.5 g/cm3 into
kg/m3
 Example 1
• A procedure for an experiment calls for 0.500
M sodium carbonate. How would you make 250
mL of this solution using pure sodium
carbonate and water?

• We start by calculating the mass of sodium

carbonate that is needed to make 250 mL of
0.500 M Na2CO3.

= 13.2 g Na2CO3
  Example 1: Determination of CEC
• 10 g of soil is used
• Unit cmol+/kg
• Use 10 ml from total of 100 ml

Chemical reactions involves during distillation and titrationan

NaOH + NH4+ NH3 + H2O + Na+

NH3 + H3BO3 NH4H2BO3-

NH4H2BO3- + HCl H3BO3 + NH4Cl

CEC = ml x M HCl x 100 ml x 1000 g x 1 cmol

10 g 10 ml 1 kg 10 mmol
 Example 3: Determination of CEC
• 100 ml solution containing NH4+
• 10 g of soil used
• If the concentration of NH4+was found to
be 250 μg/ml, what is the CEC of the
soil in cmol+/kg of soil?

(1 μmol+ of NH4+ = 18 μg)

 Example 3: Liming of acid soils
• It was determined in the lab that 10 g of
soil required 1 g of lime
• If the bulk density of the soil is 1.5 g/cm3,
how much lime is required for 1 ha of soil
to the depth of 15 cm?

(The area of 1 ha of soil is 100m X 100 m)

 Precision, Accuracy and
Uncertainty and Errors
 In all experimental measurements, there is a
degree of uncertainty. This is usually dependent
on:
• The limitation of the measuring instrument.
• The skill of the person making the measurement.
 Two types of errors
• Systematic errors
• Random errors
 Although all experimental measurements are
subject to error, we can still trust our
measurements in terms of their precision and
accuracy.
Errors
 Systematic/bias errors are consistent and
repeatable (constant offset)
 Random errors - arise from random fluctuations
in the measurements
 To differentiate between the two:
• random errors are reduced when experiment is repeated
many times, get a mean value
• The systematic error (bias) will not change
 systematic errors can be studied through
intercomparisons, calibrations
 difficulties in determining systematic errors:
• "truth" is hard to know - may also have uncertainty
• sub-optimal environment for comparison
 random errors - studied through statistical
analysis of repeated measurements (mean,
standard deviation, and variance are often used
 To reduce the effect of errors include:
• developing observing procedures to
eliminate gross and systematic errors
• taking additional or redundant
observations to check for mistakes;

 and specifically with respect to

random errors:
• take observations many times.
 Precision indicates the reproducibility of a
measurement. That is, the closeness in
agreement among the values when the same
quantity is measured several times. If the
series of measurements is reproducible, then
good precision is obtained as careful
inspection of each measurements deviates
only by a small amount from the average of
the series.
 On the other hand, if there is a wide
deviation among the series of measurements
the precision is poor.
 A measurement is said to be accurate if it is
close to the known "accepted" or "most
probable" value.
 For example, the boiling point of pure water
at sea level is 100oC. Using the same
thermometer in four trials of measurements,
the data collected is as follows:
 Boiling point of pure water at sea level

• 96.9oC 96.8oC 97.1oC 97.0oC

• Since these figures show a high reproducibility,

the measurements are precise. However, the
values are considerably off from the accepted
value of 100oC. So, the measurements are not
accurate. In this set of measurements, we
probably would suspect that the inaccuracy arises
from a mis-calibrated thermometer.
 Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean is what is commonly called
the average.
 The mean is the sum of all the scores divided by
the number of scores.
 The formula in summation notation is:

μ = ΣX/N
where μ is the population mean and N is the
number of scores.
 If the scores are from a sample, then the symbol
M (or X bar) refers to the mean and N refers to
the sample size.
 The formula for M is the same as the formula for
μ.
 The variance is a measure of how spread out a
distribution is.
 It is computed as the average squared deviation
of each number from its mean.
 The formula (in summation notation) for the
variance in a population is

where μ is the mean and N is the number of

scores.
 By far the most common formula for computing
variance in a sample is:

which gives an unbiased estimate of σ2.

 Since samples are usually used to estimate
parameters, s2 is the most commonly used
measure of variance.
 Calculating the variance is an important part of
many statistical applications and analyses.
 Standard Deviation
The formula for the standard deviation is very
simple: it is the square root of the variance.
 It is the most commonly used measure of spread.
 An important attribute of the standard deviation
as a measure of spread is that if the mean and
standard deviation of a normal distribution are
known, it is possible to compute the percentile
rank associated with any given score.
 In a normal distribution, about 68% of the scores
are within one standard deviation of the mean
and about 95% of the scores are within two
standards deviations of the mean.
 The standard deviation has proven to be an
extremely useful measure of spread in part
because it is mathematically tractable.
 Many formulas in inferential statistics use the
standard deviation
 The standard error of the mean is designated as: σM.
 It is the standard deviation of the sampling distribution of
the mean.
 The formula for the standard error of the mean is:

where σ is the standard deviation of the original

distribution and N is the sample size (the number of scores
each mean is based upon).
 This formula does not assume a normal distribution.
However, many of the uses of the formula do assume a
normal distribution.
 The formula shows that the larger the sample size, the
smaller the standard error of the mean.
 More specifically, the size of the standard error of the mean
is inversely proportional to the square root of the sample
size.
 When s is used as an estimate of σ, the
estimated standard error of the mean is

 The standard error of the mean is used in

the computation of confidence intervals
and significance tests for the mean.
 Sampling Techniques
 Methods by which the researcher can
derive a sample from a POPULATION.
 Naturally, if the aim of a certain study is
to learn things about a certain population,
the optimum methodology is to test all
members of that population.
 However as a rule you simply cannot do
this, since it can be prohibitively time-
consuming and expensive, and ultimately
pointless.
 Why do we sample?
• reduces the amount of time and money
• Limits destructive nature of certain tests
• greater overall accuracy as compared to
an observation of the entire population
 Good sampling techniques reduce
sampling error
 What are descriptive statistics and

inferential statistics
 Key Sampling Concepts
 Population
• A population is defined as an entire group of
persons, things, or events having at least one
common trait.
• A totality consisting of all items that might be
surveyed in a particular problem if a complete
enumeration were made
• The concept is arbitrary, based on whatever
the researcher choose to call the common trait
• A population may be either finite or infinite
 Sample
• defined as a smaller part of a population
selected by some rule or plan
• Samples are more accessible than
population, we select and measure
sample, and from these we can make
sound inferences about the population
 Parameter
• May be defined as an estimate of one or
more population characteristics
• E.g. if we measure information on the
yearly income of farmers, and divide the
value by the total number of farmers,
the resulting mean income is a
parameter for that specific population
• Most parameters are estimated and
inferred
 Simple Random Sampling
 each member of the population has
the same chance of selection, and
 the relative chance of selection of any

two members of the population is not

affected by knowledge of whether a
third member has or has not been
selected. In practice, this essentially
means drawing names out of a hat or
some other random method.
 Table of Random Numbers
10097 32533 76520 13586 34673 54876 80959
09117 39292 74945 00001 37542 04805 64894
74296 24805 24037 20636 10402 00822 91665
00002 08422 68953 19645 09303 23209 02560
15953 34764 35080 33606 00003 99019 02529
09376 70715 38311 31165 88676 74397 04436
27659 00004 12807 99970 80157 36147 64032
36653 98951 16877 12171 76833 00005 66065
74717 34072 76850 36697 36170 65813 39885
11199 29170 00006 31060 10805 45571 82406
35303 42614 86799 07439 23403 09732 00007
85269 77602 02051 65692 68665 74818 73053
85247 18623 88579 00008 63573 32135 05325
47048 90553 57548 28468 28709 83491 25624
 Stratified sampling
 The population is divided into non-
overlapping groups, or strata.
 Samples are drawn from each
stratum separately and results
pooled.
 For example, you may choose
proportional size of strata for Arts,
Science, and Divinity students within
a given University.
 Very useful when there is expected
variation between subpopulations
 By stratifying, we can group sampling
units into different homogeneous strata so
that the variability within subpopulation
(stratum) is smaller than that between
sampling units in the other subpopulations
 E.g of strata that can be used are sex,
age, physical differences, fertility levels
etc.
 Stratification is similar to blocking in
experimental design
 Advantages:
• More accurate estimators that have
smaller variances than estimators from
simple random sampling
• Cost efficient and administratively
convenient
 Stratification can be combined with
simple random sampling
 Requires presampling to determine
the strata for parameters than can
be observed directly
 Systematic sampling
 Also known as multistage random
sampling or grid sampling
 E.g.:
• Say we need to sample 400 cows from a total
of 1600 in a feedlot to determine the effect of
a new feed ration.
• Assume that the population is in random order,
we can systematically select every fourth cow
to be subjected to the feed ration study
• Since 1600/400 =4, every 4th cow is selected
from the sample, i.e cow number 4, 8, 12, 16,
etc.
 Composite Sampling
 Used when only the average value of the
parameter in the study is needed
 Save analytical costs
 Samples are thoroughly mixed to form a
composite and then subsampled for
submission to the lab
 Can only be used for parameters not
affected by physical disturbances
(biological and chemical properties)
 Only mean is measured, no estimate of
the variance of the mean nor the estimate
of precision
 Judgemental Sampling
 The researcher uses his/her
judgement as the basis for selecting
items to be included in a sample
 The judgement for selecting the
samples must be those samples that
are representative of the entire
population
 Limitation of measuring instrument
 Every measurement is limited by the precision of the measurement
device. Care should be taken in recording measurements. To a
scientist, a measurement of "2.3 cm" has a different meaning than
a measurement of "2.30 cm" even though the value of the
measurement is exactly the same. The measurements 2.3 cm and
2.30 cm reflect the limitations of the measuring device.

 What is the correct measurement of the blue bar using Ruler 1?

 What is the correct measurement of the
blue bar using Ruler 2?
 Significant figures
 Except for numbers which are exact
numbers or counting numbers, it is often
impossible to determine an exact value of a
quantity that is under investigation.
 In all experimental measurements, there is
a degree of uncertainty.
 When a scientist takes a measurement
there are three kinds of information that
are recorded:
• The magnitude of the measurement.
• The reliability of the number.
• The unit of the measurement.
 The magnitude and reliability of
measurement
 Since all experimental measurements have
uncertainties, we need to know how much we can
trust the measurements.
 Let’s assume two balances are accurately
calibrated. One measurement is taken on a "crude"
balance, and the other is taken on a
"sophisticated" balance. The table below shows us
how to interpret the two masses.

Crude Shopisticated

Measurement 12.4 g 12.4536 g

  In scientific work, we must always be
careful to write down the quantity of
measurements properly and to report and
calculate quantities that reflect on the
accuracy of the measurements. For these
reasons, it is important to indicate the
margin of error in a measurement by
clearly indicating the number of
significant figures.
 We can determine the number of
significant figures for any measurement.

# of sig fig = # of digits that are CERTAIN + 1 final uncertain digit

 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
RULES (Significant figures are the figures in red)
Rule 1. All nonzero integers eg - 456 cm 456 cm
are significant. has 3 significant figures

Rule 2. All zeros to the left eg - 0.00567 kg 0.00567 kg

of the first nonzero digit are has 3 significant figures
not significant since they
are used to locate the
decimal point.
Rule 3. All zeros between eg 1 - 207.08 cm 207.08 cm
nonzero digits are has 5 significant figures
significant.
eg 2 - 0.0401 L 0.0401 L
has 3 significant figures
Rule 4. All zeros at the eg 1 - 34.070 mg 34.070 mg
end of a number that has 5 significant
has a decimal point figures
are significant.

eg 2 - 0.0670 g 0.0670 g
has 3 significant
figures
eg 3 – 400.00 mm 400.00 mm
has 5 significant
figures
Rule 5. Zeros at the end eg - 300 L 300 L
of a whole number has 1 significant
that has no decimal figure.
point is not
significant.
 Calculations Involving Significant
Figures
 It is important to know how to determine the
proper number of significant figures in your
answer AFTER you have completed mathematical
manipulations of the measurements.
 For example,
• let's say you have taken the following measurements for
calculating the area of a table-top.
width = 50.996 cm
length = 75.4 cm
 To calculate the area of the table-top, the area
would equal 50.996 cm x 75.4 cm.
 Should you record the calculator answer
3845.0984 cm2 ?
 Rules for Addition and Subtraction

• The answer must retain the same number of

digits to the right of the decimal point as were
present in the value with the fewest number of
digits to the right of the decimal point.

 Question: If you have 3.18 L of water

and you add 0.01315 L more. How much
water do you end up with?
 Answer: It is easiest if you look write out
the addition problem by aligning the
decimal point.
 Rules for Multiplication and Division

• The answer must contain the same number of significant figures as

were present in the measurement with the fewest number of
significant figures.

 Question: A student measures the length of a table to be 120.2

cm and the length to be 29.5 cm. What is the area of the table.
Express the answer with the proper number of significant figures.

 Answer:
• Step 1: To obtain the area of the table, we perform the following
multiplication using the calculator.
• 29.5 cm x 120.2 cm = ?
• The calculator displays the answer to be 3545.9. The unit is in cm 2.

• Step 2: Inspect each number and determine the number of significant

figures in each number.
29.5 has 3 significant figures (This measurement has the fewest
number of significant figures.)
120.2 has 4 significant figuresThe measurement 29.5 limits the
number of significant figures in the answer to 3 significant figures.

• The answer is 3.55 x 103 cm2; 3 significant figures.

 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
In rounding off numbers, the last figure kept
should be unchanged if the first figure dropped is
less than 5.
In rounding off numbers, the last figure kept
should be increased by 1 if the first figure
dropped is greater than 5.
In rounding off numbers, if the first figure
dropped is 5, and all the figures following the five
are zero or if there are no figures after the 5,
then the last figure kept should be unchanged if
that last figure is even.
In rounding off numbers, if the first figure
dropped is 5, and all the figures following the five
are zero or if there are no figures after the 5,
then the last figure kept should be increased by
1 if that last figure is odd.
In rounding off numbers, if the first figure
dropped is 5, and there are any figures following
the five that are not zero, then the last figure
kept should be increased by 1.
For example, if only one decimal is to be kept,
then 6.422 becomes 6.4.
For example, if only two decimals are to be kept,
then 6.4872 becomes 6.49. Similarly, 6.997
becomes 7.00.
For example, if only one decimal is to be kept,
then 6.6500 becomes 6.6.
For example, if only two decimals are to be kept,
then 7.485 becomes 7.48.
For example, if only two decimals are to be kept,
then 6.755000 becomes 6.76.
For example, if only two decimals are to be kept,
8.995 becomes 9.00.
For example, if only one decimal is to be kept,
then 6.6501 becomes 6.7.
For example, if only two decimals are to be kept,
then 7.4852007 becomes 7.49.
 Problems
 Determine the number of significant
figures in the following
measurements:

(a) 30.240 cm have?

(b) 0.00545 g have?

(c) 1.00040
 Perform the arithmetic operation and
round off the answers to the correct
number of significant figures:

(a) (0.0022 g)/(3.45 mL)

(b) 84.35 g - 0.02345 g

(c) 65.5 g / (54.45 cm x 65.45 cm x

65.0006 cm)
 Express the following in scientific
notation to three significant figures:

(a) 670 g/mL

(b) 0.000006778

(c) 4.35 x 105 + 3.432 x 104