Thinking in

Print

The Uses of
Research,
Public and
Private
The Ubiquity and Impact of Research
 Scientific breakthroughs and global crises
are illuminated by the research of dedicated
individuals.
 Libraries house over twenty-five centuries of
accumulated research, while the Internet
provides access to millions of reports,
fostering a continuous cycle of inquiry and
knowledge dissemination.
The Vital Role of Research in Society
 Teachers, governments, and businesses invest
significantly in research, recognizing its pivotal role
in advancing knowledge and informing decision-
making.
 Research spans diverse environments, from
laboratories and libraries to jungles, oceans, outer
space, and even our homes, constituting the
world's largest industry. Those adept at conducting
and evaluating research play a crucial role in a
world increasingly reliant on well-founded ideas
and trustworthy information.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Understanding Research
 Definition: Research is the systematic process of gathering
information to answer questions and solve problems.
 Everyday Examples:
 Problem: Finding a new head gasket for a '65 Mustang.
 Research: Using the yellow pages to locate an auto-
parts store and calling to check stock.
 Problem: Settling a bet on Michael Jordan's birthday.
 Research: Quick online search using Google.
 Problem: Curiosity about a new species of fish.
 Research: Internet search for articles in newspapers
and academic journals.
The Importance of Research

 Daily Impact:
 Acknowledge that we all engage in research daily, even if
informally.
 Highlight reliance on others who document their research (e.g.,
biographers, discoverers of new species, publishers).
 Joining a Larger Conversation:
 Emphasize that research projects, even when assigned, prepare
individuals to join a longstanding and esteemed human
conversation.
 Encourage seeing research as an opportunity to contribute to
various fields, from philosophy and biology to business and law.
 Future Impact:
 Acknowledge that, initially, one may feel like a passive listener in
the conversation, especially as a beginner or student.
 Stress the potential future impact, as research and well-
articulated arguments can contribute to addressing ignorance,
prejudice, and improving one's community or even the world over
time.
Why Write It Up?
 Joining the conversation: Accepting the
invitation to engage in research and
writing may seem like a daunting task.
 Purpose beyond proving capability:
Beyond showcasing your skills, the
process involves finding a compelling
question, gathering robust data, and
formulating a well-supported answer. The
potential audience may be limited to your
teacher, raising the question of its broader
significance.
The Power of Thinking in Print

Clarity through Writing:

 Writing serves as a tool to extract thoughts from the mind and put them on
paper.
 The process of writing helps reveal the true clarity and coherence of ideas.
Reality Check for Ideas:
 Acknowledge the common belief that ideas appear more compelling in the
mind than on paper.
 Writing provides a tangible platform to assess the strength and depth of
one's thoughts.
Separation from Mental Flow:
 By putting thoughts on paper, individuals separate ideas from the swift and
sometimes chaotic flow of mental processes.
 This separation allows for a more objective evaluation of the substance and
merit of ideas.
Organized Form for Study:
 Fixing ideas in an organized form on paper enables both the writer and
readers to study them more effectively.
 The structured presentation facilitates a deeper understanding of the
content.
Writing for Accurate Memory:
 Writing aids in accurate recall and memory, enhancing one's ability to remember
information.
 The act of writing contributes to a more reliable and enduring record of thoughts.
Enhancing Understanding:
 The process of writing promotes a better understanding of the subject matter.
 It allows individuals to explore, articulate, and refine their thoughts for improved
comprehension.
Objective Self-Evaluation:
 Writing encourages objective self-evaluation of one's thoughts and ideas.
 By distancing oneself from the initial thought process, individuals can critically
assess and refine their perspectives.
Improving Critical Thinking:
 Regular writing not only enhances writing skills but also improves critical thinking
abilities.
 The act of evaluating and organizing thoughts fosters a continuous cycle of
improvement in both writing and thinking.
Encouraging Reading Skills:
 The correlation between writing and reading skills is highlighted.
 As individuals engage in the practice of writing, they simultaneously enhance their
ability to comprehend and evaluate written content.
The Purpose of a Formal Paper

Introduction:

 Why a formal paper? Some may question the necessity of conforming to established
writing conventions when communicating research.
 Acknowledge concerns about losing personal identity and resistances to adopting
unfamiliar language and forms.

Transformation through Education:

 Education should bring about change and growth. A feeble education wouldn't alter
one's perspective.
 Choosing what to study and with whom is crucial in shaping personal growth.
Preserving Identity through Learning:
 Learning to write in specific ways does not threaten one's true identity.
 It expands thinking, offering more ways to express oneself and make life choices.
Importance of Writing for Others:
 When writing for an audience, individuals demand more from themselves, leading to a
deeper understanding of their own ideas.
 Anticipating readers' questions enhances self-reflection and evaluation of evidence,
relevance, and considered ideas.
Writing for a Rhetorical Community

Creating a Rhetorical Community:

 Writing for readers establishes a rhetorical community of shared
values.
 Meeting readers' expectations can uncover flaws, blunders, or new
insights in one's thinking.
Traditional Forms and Shared Values:
 Traditional writing forms are more than vessels; they help writers
think and communicate uniquely.
 Shared values of a research community are embodied in these
traditional forms.
Genres as Community Representation:
 Various genres of research-based writing (e.g., research paper,
scholarly article) serve as representations of knowledge and practices
within a community.
 Writing in standard forms demonstrates understanding and
membership within a specific research community.
Advantages of Mastering Research Writing

Evolution of Genres:
 Research writing genres (research paper, scholarly article, etc.) have evolved
to meet the needs of specific communities.
 Stability in these forms allows newcomers and seasoned members to
connect through shared practices.
Membership in Research Community:
 Learning to write in the genres of a field makes one a member of that
research community.
 Understanding community-specific genres facilitates effective
communication and engagement.
Universality of Good Work:
 Regardless of the research community (academic, government, commerce),
what constitutes good work remains the same.
 Mastering research writing skills provides a universal advantage, applicable
in various professional settings.
Writing is Thinking

Introduction
 "Writing is thinking with and for your readers."
 Emphasize the connection between writing and the cognitive process.
Disentangling Ideas
 Writing separates ideas from memories and wishes.
 Allows exploration, expansion, combination, and deeper understanding.
Thinking for Others
 Thinking for others is more careful, sustained, and insightful.
 Describes it as a more thoughtful form of thinking compared to personal
contemplation.
Easy Way vs. Fulfilling Approach
 Acknowledge the temptation to do the minimum for the sake of satisfying
teachers.
 Encouragement to pursue a deeper, fulfilling approach for personal and
intellectual growth.
Choosing a Meaningful Topic
 Encouragement to find a topic of personal interest and relevance.
 Proposing the idea of asking questions and pursuing answers passionately.
Commitment to Research
 Stress on the importance of commitment to successful research.
 Reference to significant research achievements driven by perseverance
and dedication.
Barbara McClintock's Example
 Highlight the story of geneticist Barbara McClintock.
 Her perseverance in the face of indifference and eventual recognition
with the Nobel Prize.
Learning through Argumentation
 Assert that nothing teaches more about thinking than making successful
or unsuccessful arguments.
 Writing as a tool for developing and expressing one's thoughts
effectively.
Balancing Belief and External Demands
 Acknowledge the challenge of balancing personal beliefs with external
expectations.
 Recognition that, at times, one may need to persevere alone with
dedication.
Connecting with Your Reader and Creating a Role for Yourself in Research
Writing

Introduction
 Emphasize the importance of reader engagement in research writing.
 Acknowledge the tendency for researchers to overlook the role of readers
in the research process.
Understanding Your Readers
 Encourage researchers to consider their audience before starting a
project.
 Highlight the need to tailor the language, tone, and content to the
intended readership.
The Myth of the Lone Scholar
 Challenge the misconception of research as a solitary endeavor in a quiet
library.
 Illustrate that research is a collaborative dialogue that extends across time
and involves multiple voices.
The Conversational Nature of Research
 Emphasize that reading and writing research is a dynamic conversation
between authors and readers.
 Highlight the rich history of this scholarly conversation, spanning over five
thousand years.
Joining the Conversation
 Stress that every time researchers access written sources, they are
participating in an ongoing dialogue.
 Encourage researchers to view their work as an opportunity to
contribute to this scholarly conversation.
Reporting Your Research
 Discuss the significance of adding one's voice to the larger discourse
through research reporting.
 Express the hope that other voices will engage with and respond to the
research findings.
Building a Continuum of Knowledge
 Convey the idea that research writing is a continuum, with each
contribution building on the work of others.
 Inspire researchers to see their role as part of a broader tradition that
will endure over time.
Understanding the Dynamics of Conversations in Writing

 Introduction:
 Emphasize that writing involves an imagined conversation with readers.
 Highlight the differences between face-to-face conversations and written
conversations.
 Fixed Roles in Writing:
 Explain that unlike face-to-face conversations, roles in written
communication are fixed once established.
 Discuss the challenge of adjusting roles in writing once the reader has
formed judgments.
 Example: Abrams and Stanik:
 Illustrate the point with an example: If a reader perceives dogmatism in
Abrams' criticism, the writer cannot change the reader's judgment on
subsequent readings.
Judgments and Roles in Writing

 Judgments Both Ways:

 Discuss the reciprocal nature of judgments between writers and
readers.
 Emphasize that writers must anticipate readers' needs and goals.
 Example Sentences:
 Analyze two sentences demonstrating how writers make
judgments about readers.
 Highlight the importance of tailoring writing style to the
audience's knowledge and interests.
 Risks of Misjudgment:
 Discuss the risks writers face when misjudging their readers.
 Emphasize that misjudgment can lead to a disconnect and the
potential loss of readers.
Creating Roles and Imagining Readers in Writing

 Roles from the Beginning:

 Stress the importance of thinking about roles from the beginning of
the writing process.
 Explain that ignoring or miscasting readers in the initial drafts can be
challenging to rectify in the final version.
 Imagining Readers in Book Writing:
 Share the authors' approach in writing the book, emphasizing their
efforts to imagine the reader's persona and their own persona.
 Highlight the importance of creating a connection with readers and
adjusting the writing tone accordingly.
Understanding Your Role in Research Writing

Introduction
 Highlight the challenge of engaging readers in formal research papers.
 Emphasize the need to establish a compelling relationship with readers.
Avoiding the Classroom Caricature
 Discuss the common pitfall of adopting a teacher-student dynamic in research
papers.
 Caution against presenting research as a mere exercise in collecting facts for
evaluation.
Switching Roles in True Research
 Emphasize the shift in roles between student and teacher in genuine research.
 Encourage researchers to view themselves as discoverers of valuable information
that readers don't yet know.
Building a Relationship Beyond Facts
 Stress the importance of presenting research as an opportunity to share
something new and interesting.
 Encourage researchers to imagine a relationship that goes beyond presenting facts
for evaluation.
Reasons for Offering New Information

New and Interesting Information

 Discuss the first reason for presenting information: sharing facts about a
topic that readers may find intriguing.
 Emphasize the need to present the information as something valuable
and engaging.
Solution to a Practical Problem
 Introduce the concept of providing solutions to practical problems
through research.
 Illustrate the value of research in addressing real-world challenges in
areas like business, government, and professions.
Answer to an Important Question
 Discuss the role of academic researchers in helping their community
understand complex issues.
 Highlight the distinction between "pure" research for understanding and
"applied" research for solving practical problems.
Different Roles in Research Scenarios
Real-world Scenarios
 Describe how teachers may create real-world
scenarios for students to play roles in practical
problem-solving.
 Emphasize the importance of using appropriate
terminology, citing sources, and presenting evidence
in such scenarios.
Addressing Conceptual Problems
 Discuss the common academic role of researchers
addressing conceptual problems.
 Illustrate how research contributes to a deeper
understanding of topics within a scholarly
community.
Establishing Your Relationship with Readers

 Recognize the critical role of establishing a connection with readers in research

writing.
 Emphasize the need to adopt specific roles to engage readers effectively.

Adopting Roles for Effective Communication | Three Essential Roles

 Highlight the three roles a researcher can adopt: providing information, problem-
solving, and facilitating understanding.
 Discuss the significance of choosing a role that aligns with the purpose of the
research.

The Social Contract with Readers | Reciprocal Expectations

 Explain the concept of a social contract between the researcher and readers.
 Emphasize the importance of mutual understanding and cooperation.

Understanding Your Readers' Role | Avoiding Reader Disengagement

 Stress the importance of accurately casting readers in a role they will accept.
 Discuss the risk of losing readers if their expected role does not align with their
interests or expectations.

Tailoring Research for Different Audiences | Example Scenario: The Zeppelin Club

 Illustrate the concept with the example of presenting research to the local Zeppelin Club.
 Emphasize the need to tailor the presentation based on the audience's interests and expectations.
Roles in Specific Scenarios

 Variety of Audiences
 Explore three scenarios: entertaining, problem-solving, and facilitating
understanding.
 Discuss the different expectations and approaches required for each scenario.

Joining the Scholarly Conversation

 Engaging with Academic Readers

 Discuss the scenario involving the faculty of Zeppo University’s Department of
Lighter-than-Air Studies.
 Highlight the expectations of scholarly readers and the need for rigor, objectivity,
and relevance in presenting research.

Conclusion

 Key Takeaways
 Summarize the importance of imagining and understanding readers' roles in
effective research communication.
 Encourage researchers to consider their audience and purpose carefully in order to
establish a meaningful connection.
Planning Your Project - An Overview

Getting Started
 If you've reviewed the book, it's time to embark on your research project.
 Having a research question and knowing how to seek answers are essential
prerequisites.
Navigating the Chapters
 Quickly review the next two chapters if you have a research question and know
where to find answers.
 Delve into subsequent chapters as they become relevant to your specific project.
Starting from Scratch
 Acknowledge the challenge of starting with no predefined topic.
 Emphasize the importance of having a plan and taking one step at a time.
Four Steps to Find a Research Question
 Identify a specific topic that allows mastery within your time constraints.
 Example: Not the history of scientific writing but essays in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society (1675–1750).
 Question the chosen topic until intriguing questions emerge.
Understanding Reader Expectations
 Determine the evidence expected by your readers to support your answer.
 Consider the necessity of consulting primary sources, providing quantitative data,
quotations, or firsthand observations.
Ensuring Access to Evidence
 Verify the availability of the required evidence before delving into research.
 Emphasize the importance of aligning your research with the type of evidence you
can feasibly obtain.
Assembling an Argument
 Once you believe you have sufficient data, begin constructing a compelling
argument.
 Reference Part III of the book for guidance on assembling a persuasive case.
Planning, Drafting, and Revising
 Highlight the subsequent steps: planning, drafting, and revising (see Part IV).
 Emphasize the dynamic and iterative nature of the research process.
Navigating Unpredictable Paths
 Acknowledge that research is not a linear process but involves zigzagging through
uncertainties.
 Stress the need to anticipate and plan for detours during the research journey.
Making Progress Amidst Challenges
 Illustrate the analogy of research as navigating a rocky hill in overgrown woods.
 Emphasize the adaptability required to recognize and address challenges along
the way.
From Topics to Questions - Navigating Your Research Journey
Introduction
 Discuss the transition from general interests to a focused research project.
 Highlight the relevance of this chapter for those starting their first research project.
Choosing a Topic: A Daunting Task for Beginners
 Acknowledge the initial challenges faced by new researchers in selecting a research
topic.
 Emphasize the importance of distinguishing between a subject and a focused topic.
Avoiding Information Overload: The Importance of Focus
 Address the common pitfall of inexperienced researchers accumulating excessive
and irrelevant information.
 Stress the significance of having a focused topic to avoid presenting a mere
collection of random facts.
Defining a Topic: More than Narrowing a Subject
 Clarify that defining a topic involves adopting a specific approach to a subject.
 Highlight the role of a topic in asking a question that solves a relevant problem for
readers.
Questions "In the Air" vs. Personal Intrigues
 Differentiate between widely debated questions in research communities and
personally intriguing, unique questions.
 Encourage researchers to explore their own curiosities, even if they begin with small,
specific questions.
Starting with a Mental Itch: Scratching the Surface
 Illustrate that research often begins with a researcher's curiosity about a small,
specific question.
 Encourage researchers to pursue their intellectual itches and delve into questions
that personally intrigue them.
Determining the Significance of Your Question
 Emphasize the importance of evaluating whether the answer to a research question
addresses a significant problem.
 Highlight the potential impact on research communities or the broader public.
Understanding the Term "Problem" in Research
 Acknowledge the unique meaning of the term "problem" in the context of research
(explore further in the next chapter).
 Emphasize the necessity of finding a topic before framing a research problem.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: transitioning from interests to a research project,
choosing a focused topic, and the importance of personal curiosity.
 Set the stage for the next step: framing a research problem based on the chosen
topic.
From an Interest to a Topic - Nurturing Research Curiosity

Introduction
 Discuss the common challenge for beginners in transforming interests into a
focused research topic.
 Highlight the misconception that one needs extensive expertise to choose a
research topic.
Defining a Research Topic
 Emphasize that a research topic is an interest articulated with specificity.
 Clarify that becoming a local expert means developing a deep understanding rather
than already possessing extensive knowledge.
Imagining Local Expertise
 Encourage beginners to envision themselves as local experts on their chosen topics.
 Assure that expertise is developed throughout the research process, and it's not a
prerequisite.
Starting with Personal Interest
 Advise that, if given the freedom to choose any topic, beginners should begin with
what genuinely interests them.
 Highlight the positive impact of personal interest on the quality of research
commitment.
Question vs. Problem
 Clarify the slight distinction between questions and problems.
 Define a question as raising a problem if not answering it hinders understanding
something more important than its answer.
Importance of Answering Questions
 Stress the significance of questions that raise problems, as answering them
leads to a deeper understanding of critical concepts.
 Provide an example: the question of ultimate particles leading to insights
into the nature of physical existence.
Consequences of Unanswered Questions
 Highlight that questions not raising apparent problems may have no
significant consequences if left unanswered.
 Example: trivia about Abraham Lincoln's right thumb length compared to his
nose.
Enhancing Personal and Broad Appeal
 Encourage researchers to reflect on what interests them about their chosen
topic.
 Prompt consideration of broader appeal: What aspects would interest others
in the chosen topic?
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: defining a research topic, starting with personal
interest, and distinguishing between questions and problems.
 Encourage researchers to nurture their curiosity and choose topics that align
with personal and broader interests.
Finding a Topic in a Writing Course - Exploring Interests and Research Potential

Introduction
 Discuss the importance of finding a suitable topic in a writing course.
 Emphasize the freedom to explore personal interests without conforming to
perceived expectations.
Generating Ideas: Unleash Your Creativity
 Encourage listing as many personal interests as possible without concern for
external judgment.
 Promote brainstorming with friends, classmates, and teachers to diversify potential
topics.
Research Potential Exploration
 Once a list is generated, choose one or two topics of personal interest.
 Explore research potential by utilizing library resources and online databases.
Library Exploration
 In the library, use general guides like CQ Researcher or online databases such as
Academic Search Premier.
 Skim subheadings or subject terms to gauge the depth and breadth of available
information.
Specialized Guides
 For a more focused approach, consult specialized guides such as Women's Studies
International.
 Acknowledge the shift towards online equivalents and discuss the accessibility of
subject headings.
Internet Search Strategies
 Use Google selectively, avoiding indiscriminate surfing.
 Look for reliable online encyclopedias and cross-verify information found on
platforms like Wikipedia.
Blog Exploration
 Explore blogs for ideas, especially on contentious issues.
 Focus on posts that tackle narrow aspects of larger issues, as they are more suitable
for research papers.
Critical Evaluation
 Remind researchers that this stage is about exploring and assessing the viability of
a topic.
 Highlight the importance of cross-referencing information and confirming details
from reliable sources.
Caution with Wikipedia
 Emphasize the caution needed when using Wikipedia.
 Encourage researchers to use Wikipedia for ideas but to verify information from
more reliable sources.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: creative idea generation, exploration of research
potential, and caution in using online sources.
 Encourage researchers to approach topic exploration as a dynamic and critical
process.
Finding a Topic for Your First Research Project

Introduction
 Discuss the importance of selecting a suitable topic for a first research project.
 Emphasize the need for relevance to the class and personal interest.
Listing and Narrowing Topics
 Start by listing topics relevant to your class and of personal interest.
 Encourage narrowing down to one or two promising topics for in-depth exploration.
Approach for General Topics
 For general topics like "religious masks," conduct systematic random reading with a
focused plan.
 Utilize encyclopedia entries (e.g., Encyclopaedia Britannica) and specialized indexes
(e.g., Philosopher's Index) to gather insights.
Strategic Online Search
 Google your topic selectively and use Google Scholar for scholarly focus.
 Skim articles, especially noting their lists of sources for further exploration.
Understanding Your Topic's General Outline
 Gain a general understanding of your topic by reviewing encyclopedia entries and
specialized indexes.
 Use this knowledge as a foundation for further exploration and narrowing.
Narrowing Your Topic
 Attempt to narrow your topic based on your understanding and insights from
others' narrowed topics.
 If struggling, browse through journals and websites for inspiration and clarity.
Finding a Topic for an Advanced Project
 Acknowledge that advanced students often have existing interests in
their field.
 Encourage focusing on personal interests while considering broader
appeal to others.
Researching Others' Interests
 Investigate recurring issues and debates in professional discussion lists
and online archives.
 Skim the latest journals, conference announcements, and calls for papers
to identify trends and interests.
Exploring Library Resources
 Utilize library resources, especially unique collections or archives, as
potential sources for unexpected finds.
 Emphasize the value of library archives in sparking unique research
directions.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: listing, narrowing, strategic online searching,
and exploring library resources for topic discovery.
 Encourage early start and thorough exploration for effective topic
selection.
From a Broad Topic to a Focused One - Crafting a Research Direction

Introduction
 Emphasize the role of a topic as the starting point for research, originating from the
Greek word "topos," meaning "place."
 Highlight the need to narrow broad topics for focused and productive research.
Risk of Broad Topics
 Discuss the risk of choosing a topic that is overly broad, resembling a subheading in a
library catalog.
 Illustrate that topics stated in four or five words may be too broad and intimidating.
Example: Narrowing the Focus
 Demonstrate the process of narrowing down broad topics to focused ones.
 Provide examples:
 Original: Free will in Tolstoy → Focused: The conflict of free will and inevitability in
Tolstoy’s description of three battles in War and Peace
 Original: The history of commercial aviation → Focused: The contribution of the
military in developing the DC-3 in the early years of commercial aviation
Importance of Action Words
 Emphasize the role of action words derived from verbs in narrowing down topics.
 Highlight words like conflict, description, contribution, and developing as essential for
crafting focused topics.
Static Topics vs. Dynamic Claims
 Contrast static topics with dynamic claims that lead to interesting insights.
 Illustrate the transformation of static topics (1) and (2) into dynamic claims (3) and (4)
by adding action-oriented elements.
Transformation into Full Sentences
 Show how restating topics as full sentences enhances their potential as claims.
 Contrast static claims (1) and (2) with dynamic claims (3) and (4) that offer a clear
direction for exploration.
Caution: Finding the Right Balance
 Caution against narrowing topics excessively to the point of scarce available
information.
 Highlight the delicate balance between focus and ensuring ample research material
availability.
Claims as Paths for Exploration
 Reinforce the idea that claims may initially seem thin but will be enriched
throughout the research project.
 Emphasize that these focused topics are paths guiding the researcher through the
project.
Conclusion
 Summarize key points: the risk of broad topics, the importance of action words, and
the transformation of static topics into dynamic claims.
 Encourage researchers to strike a balance in narrowing topics for focused
exploration.
From a Focused Topic to Questions - Crafting Meaningful Research

 Discuss the common mistake of new researchers: diving into sources without
formulating specific questions.
 Emphasize the importance of moving beyond accumulating facts to crafting
meaningful questions.
The Pitfall of Information Overload
 Highlight the beginner's mistake of amassing endless facts on a focused topic
without a clear direction.
 Mention the tendency to present a report as a pastiche of vaguely related facts,
common in early projects.
Challenges in High School vs. College
 Contrast the expectations in high school where information assembly is praised,
and in college where a lack of specific questions falls short.
 Emphasize the necessity for college-level research to go beyond a mere
compilation of facts.
The Role of Specific Questions
 Stress that without specific questions, a writer cannot provide specific answers
worth supporting.
 Emphasize the importance of selecting relevant data to support a specific answer.
Purpose of Research Documentation
 Differentiate between documenting information for its own sake and documenting
to support the answer to a meaningful question.
 Highlight the focus of serious researchers on answering questions deemed worth
asking.
Starting with Formulating Questions
 Advocate for beginning research on a focused topic by formulating questions rather
than gathering all available information.
 Introduce the standard journalistic questions (who, what, when, where) and
emphasize the significance of "how" and "why."
Systematic Questioning Approach
 Encourage systematic questioning about the topic's history, composition, and
categories.
 Promote exploration of additional questions found in sources to stimulate critical
thinking.
Recording Questions for Guidance
 Encourage recording all formulated questions without stopping to answer them
immediately.
 Emphasize that the inventory of questions guides search activities and helps make
sense of gathered information.
Example: Masks
 Connect the concept to the earlier example of masks.
 Illustrate how the questioning approach can be applied to a specific topic.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: avoiding information overload, the role of specific
questions, and the purpose of research documentation.
 Reinforce the idea that formulating questions guides meaningful research and
information synthesis.
Asking Questions about the History and Structure of Your Topic

 Emphasize the importance of asking specific questions to deepen understanding.

 Introduce the focus on exploring the history and structure of the chosen research
topic.
Historical Context: Developmental Questions
 Pose questions about the larger developmental context of the topic.
 Examples: Why did the topic come into being? What preceded it? How were masks
invented? What might come after masks?
Internal History: Changes Over Time
 Explore questions related to the internal history of the topic.
 Examples: How has the topic itself changed through time? How have specific types of
masks, like Native American or Halloween masks, evolved? What factors influenced
these changes?
Societal Impact: Roles and Influences
 Investigate the role of the topic within society.
 Examples: How have masks contributed to Hopi dances or scary movies? What roles do
masks play in masquerade parties? How has the market for specific types of masks
influenced traditional designs?
Structural Context: Part of a Larger System
 Explore how the topic fits into a larger structure or system.
 Examples: How do masks reflect the values of different societies and cultures? In what
ways do masks serve beyond disguise, such as in Hopi ceremonies or masquerade
parties?
Systematic Analysis: Parts and Functions
 Delve into the parts of the topic and how they function as a system.
 Examples: What parts of a mask hold particular significance in Hopi ceremonies?
Why? How do different styles of masks serve distinct functions, such as those
covering only the eyes or the bottom half of the face? How do colors play a role
in their function?
Recording Findings
 Emphasize the importance of systematically recording findings from these
questions.
 Encourage researchers to keep organized notes to facilitate the synthesis of
historical and structural insights.
Application to Example Topic: Masks
 Illustrate how these questioning strategies can be applied to the example topic of
masks.
 Provide brief insights into the potential answers or avenues of exploration for
each set of questions.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: the significance of historical and structural questions in
understanding a research topic.
 Highlight the value of systematic inquiry for comprehensive insights.
Slide: Asking How Your Topic Is Categorized - Analyzing Dimensions of Your Subject

Introduction
 Emphasize the importance of understanding how your research topic can be
categorized.
 Highlight the role of categorization in gaining a deeper understanding of the subject.
Grouping Your Topic into Kinds
 Ask: How can your topic be grouped into different kinds?
 Illustrate with examples: different kinds of masks, Halloween masks, African masks.
 Explore categorization based on appearance, use, geography, or societal context.
Analyzing Appearance, Use, and Geography
 Pose questions about categorization dimensions: How are masks categorized by
appearance? By use? By geography or society?
 Encourage researchers to delve into the different qualities that contribute to the
categorization of masks.
Comparisons and Contrasts
 Ask: How does your topic compare to and contrast with others like it?
 Provide examples: Native American ceremonial masks vs. Japanese masks, Halloween
masks vs. Mardi Gras masks.
 Emphasize the value of exploring similarities and differences to enhance
understanding.
 Dimensions of Comparison
 Encourage researchers to explore various dimensions for comparison: cultural,
historical, artistic, functional.
 Highlight the significance of understanding how different aspects contribute to the
categorization of the research topic.
Applying Analytical Questions
 Stress the practical application of asking analytical questions to refine the research
focus.
 Illustrate that asking how a topic is categorized provides a framework for a more
in-depth exploration.
Example: Masks
 Apply the questioning approach to the topic of masks.
 Explore different dimensions of categorization, such as cultural significance, artistic
styles, and ceremonial use.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: the importance of categorization, questions about
appearance, use, geography, and making comparisons.
 Reinforce that asking how a topic is categorized enriches the research process.
Enhancing Inquiry - Turning Questions Upside Down and Beyond

Turning Positive Questions into Negative Ones

 Discuss the value of transforming positive questions into negative ones for a more
comprehensive exploration.
 Examples:
 Why have masks not become a part of other holidays, like Presidents' Day or
Memorial Day?
 How do Native American masks not differ from those in Africa?
 What parts of masks are typically not significant in religious ceremonies?
Asking What If? and Other Speculative Questions
 Introduce the concept of speculative questions to stimulate creative thinking.
 Examples:
 How would things be different if masks never existed, disappeared, or were put
into a new context?
 What if everyone wore masks in public? In marriage ceremonies? At funerals?
Questions Suggested by Your Sources
 Emphasize the importance of building on existing sources and exploring new angles.
 Examples:
 Extend the reach of a persuasive claim: Did anxieties about social mobility cause
similar developments in Venice?
 Explore new evidence supporting a claim: Is Elias's claim about masked balls also
supported by letters and diaries?
Analogous questions: What would an economic analysis of masks reveal?
Questions Reflecting Disagreement
 Encourage critical thinking by asking questions that challenge existing claims.
 Example:
 Martinez claims that carnival masks uniquely allow wearers to escape social
norms. Could all masks create a sense of alternative social or spiritual life?
For Experienced Researchers
 Advise experienced researchers to look for unanswered questions posed by
other researchers.
 Explore possibilities from journal articles' open questions, ideas for more
research, and Internet discussions.
 Encourage recording questions that spark interest for further exploration.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: turning positive questions into negative ones, asking
speculative questions, building on and challenging existing sources, and
exploring questions posed by other researchers.
 Reinforce the idea that diverse questioning approaches enrich the research
process.
Enhancing Inquiry - Turning Questions Upside Down and Beyond

Turning Positive Questions into Negative Ones

 Discuss the value of transforming positive questions into negative ones for a more
comprehensive exploration.
 Examples:
 Why have masks not become a part of other holidays, like Presidents' Day or
Memorial Day?
 How do Native American masks not differ from those in Africa?
 What parts of masks are typically not significant in religious ceremonies?
Asking What If? and Other Speculative Questions
 Introduce the concept of speculative questions to stimulate creative thinking.
 Examples:
 How would things be different if masks never existed, disappeared, or were put
into a new context?
 What if everyone wore masks in public? In marriage ceremonies? At funerals?
Questions Suggested by Your Sources
 Emphasize the importance of building on existing sources and exploring new angles.
 Examples:
 Extend the reach of a persuasive claim: Did anxieties about social mobility cause
similar developments in Venice?
 Explore new evidence supporting a claim: Is Elias's claim about masked balls
also supported by letters and diaries?
 Analogous questions: What would an economic analysis of masks reveal?
Questions Reflecting Disagreement
 Encourage critical thinking by asking questions that challenge existing
claims.
 Example:
 Martinez claims that carnival masks uniquely allow wearers to escape
social norms. Could all masks create a sense of alternative social or
spiritual life?
For Experienced Researchers
 Advise experienced researchers to look for unanswered questions posed by
other researchers.
 Explore possibilities from journal articles' open questions, ideas for more
research, and Internet discussions.
 Encourage recording questions that spark interest for further exploration.
Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: turning positive questions into negative ones,
asking speculative questions, building on and challenging existing sources,
and exploring questions posed by other researchers.
 Reinforce the idea that diverse questioning approaches enrich the research
process.
The Most Significant Question: So What?

 Emphasize the critical nature of the "So what?" question in research.

 Acknowledge the challenge, especially for beginners, to address the significance of
their research beyond personal interest.
Importance of the "So What?" Question
 Stress that having a compelling question is not enough; researchers must answer the
"So what?" question.
 Highlight the need to look beyond personal interest to consider the broader impact
and relevance of the research.
Considerations for Beginners and Experienced Researchers
 Acknowledge that both beginners and experienced researchers may find it challenging
to answer the "So what?" question early on.
 Emphasize that addressing this question is a crucial aspect of research progress.
Three Steps to Answer "So What?"
 Present the three steps to answer the "So what?" question throughout the research
project.
 Name Your Topic, Add an Indirect Question, and Answer "So What?" by Motivating
Your Question.
Step 1: Name Your Topic
 Encourage researchers to start by naming their project.
 Examples:
 I am trying to learn about / working on / studying ____________.
 I am studying the causes of the disappearance of large North American mammals . . .
 I am working on Lincoln’s beliefs about predestination and their influence on his reasoning . . .
1. Step 2: Add an Indirect Question
 Introduce the second step of adding an indirect
question.
 Illustrate with examples, emphasizing the
importance of stating why the topic is pursued.
I am studying / working on ____________
because I want to find out who / what / when / where / whether /
why / how ____________.
I am studying the causes of the disappearance of large North
American mammals
because I want to find out whether they were hunted to extinction
I am working on Lincoln’s beliefs about predestination and its influence on his reasoning
because I want to find out how his belief in destiny influenced
his understanding of the causes of the Civil War . . .
When you add that because I want to find out how / why / whether
clause, you state why you are pursuing your topic: to answer a question important to
you.
Step 3: Answer So What? by Motivating Your Question

 Emphasize the significance of answering the "So

what?" question by motivating the initial question.
 Provide examples and highlight the need to explain
why the research matters to the reader.
I am studying the causes of the disappearance of large North
American mammals because I want to find out whether the earliest peoples hunted them to extinction, in order
to help my reader understand whether native peoples lived in harmony with nature or helped destroy it.

I am working on Lincoln’s beliefs about predestination and their influence on his reasoning
because I want to find out how his belief in destiny and God’s will influenced his understanding of the causes
of the Civil War, in order to help my reader understand how his religious beliefs may have influenced his
military decisions.
Understanding Research Problems

 Emphasize the misconception: researchers writing for personal interest alone.

 Highlight the importance of addressing problems that matter to the
community of readers.
Types of Problems
 Identify two key types of problems: practical problems and conceptual
problems.
 Emphasize the need to understand these problem types to recognize and
address research problems effectively.
Practical Problems: What Should We Do?
 Explain that everyday research often starts with practical problems that
demand solutions.
 Illustrate with examples:
 Practical problem: Bicycle chain broke.
 Research problem: Can I find a bike shop to replace it?
 Research solution: Cycle Source, 1401 East 55th Street.
 Practical solution: Walk over to get my bike fixed.
Applying Practical Problem-Solving
 Demonstrate how practical problems, whether simple or complex, involve finding solutions.
 Examples:
 Political decision: Survey constituents on gun control support.
 Business challenge: Hire consultants to investigate increased costs at the Omaha plant.
 Solutions: Make informed decisions based on survey results or address turnover issues to
reduce costs.

Characteristics of Practical Problems

 Define practical problems as conditions in the world causing tangible costs (e.g., time, money,
respect, security).
 Emphasize that solving practical problems requires understanding and taking action.
General Overview of Practical Problem Solving
 Summarize practical problem-solving: Identify a troubling condition, understand it better, and
take action to mitigate or eliminate it.
 Examples: Addressing spam, financial losses, or terrorism.
Practical Problem in Political Context
 Exemplify a political scenario: Politician lobbied by NRA on gun control.
 Highlight the need to understand constituents' views before making a decision.
Practical Problem in Business Context
 Exemplify a business scenario: Increased costs at the Omaha plant.
 Emphasize the importance of understanding the cause to address turnover issues.
Conclusion
 Reinforce the idea that research problems stem from practical problems that demand solutions.
 Stress the significance of understanding conditions, finding solutions, and applying informed
act
Conceptual
Problems

Navigating
the World of
Research
Conceptual Problems - Navigating the World of Research

1. Introduction
 Define conceptual problems as arising when
understanding about the world is lacking.
 Emphasize that conceptual problems are solved
through answering questions to enhance
understanding.
2. Distinguishing Conceptual Problems
 Highlight that conceptual problems are distinct from
practical problems.
 Emphasize that solving conceptual problems involves
answering questions to improve understanding.
3. Research as the Solution
 Connect conceptual problems with research problems,
emphasizing that research is the means to solve
conceptual problems.
 Define research problems as addressing the condition,
costs, or consequences of conceptual problems.
4. Special Meaning of "Problem"
 Explain the special meaning of "problem" in academic
research.
 Clarify that in research, a problem is sought out or
even invented, unlike the everyday connotation of a
problem as something to avoid.
5. Challenges for Beginners
 Address the confusion for beginners when
experienced researchers discuss their work in
shorthand.
 Warn against the misconception that having a general
topic is the same as having a specific problem to
solve.
1. Avoiding Aimless Data Gathering
 Describe the practical problem inexperienced
researchers face without a specific question to guide
their work.
 Emphasize the aimless and endless gathering of data
without a focused problem to solve.
2. Data Dump Challenge
 Explain the frustration of inexperienced researchers
who face criticism for data dumping without a clear
problem.
 Stress the importance of avoiding a scattered
approach to data presentation.
3. Focus through Problem Formulation
 Emphasize the need for a problem to focus research
efforts and guide data collection.
 Encourage researchers to think about the problem
from the outset to avoid aimless data gathering.
4. Understanding Conceptual Problems
 Highlight the necessity of understanding how
conceptual problems operate.
 Stress that beginners need to learn how to formulate
and address conceptual problems effectively.
5. Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: conceptual problems,
research as the solution, the special meaning of
"problem," challenges for beginners, and the
importance of focus.
 Reinforce the idea that conceptual problems guide
research and require thoughtful consideration.
Understanding the Common Structure of Problems

1. Introduction
 Highlight the common structure shared by practical
and conceptual problems.
 Emphasize the two essential parts: a situation or
condition and the undesirable consequences or costs.
2. Two-Part Structure
 Explain the fundamental structure of both practical
and conceptual problems.
 Identify the two components: a condition in the world
and the tangible costs associated with that condition.
3. Nature of Practical Problems
 Discuss the nature of practical problems using
examples.
 Illustrate a flat tire as a practical problem with the
condition (the flat) imposing tangible costs (missing a
dinner date).
4. Benefit vs. Cost Consideration
 Emphasize that the evaluation of practical problems
involves considering the balance between benefits
and costs.
 Provide an example: a flat tire becoming a solution if
it alleviates the bigger problem of an unwanted
dinner date.
5. Unusual Practical Problem Example
 Present an unusual practical problem scenario
involving the police setting up a lottery sting.
 Highlight the tangible cost of winning the lottery in
this specific context: arrest.
Two Parts of a Practical Problem
 Break down the components of a practical problem:
1. Condition: I missed the bus.
2. Costs: I'll be late for work and lose my job.
Reader-Centric Framing
 Emphasize the importance of framing the problem from the reader's perspective.
 Encourage imagining the reader's response of "So what?" and addressing it by
highlighting the costs to them.
Example: Thinning Ozone Layer
 Illustrate the process with the example of a thinning ozone layer.
 Pose the condition and respond to "So what?" with the costs to the reader: increased
exposure to ultraviolet light leading to skin cancer.
Importance of Reader's Perspective
 Stress that readers judge the significance of a problem based on the costs they would
face if the problem is not solved.
 Highlight the need to make the problem relatable and significant from the reader's
point of view.
Failure to Convince
 Warn against the failure to convince the reader of a problem if the response to "So
what?" is not compelling.
 Emphasize the importance of prompting the reader to ask, "What do we do about
it?"
Concrete vs. Abstract Problems
 Differentiate between concrete practical problems like cancer and conceptual
problems in academic research.
The Nature of Conceptual Problems

1. Introduction
 Emphasize the two-part structure common to
both practical and conceptual problems.
 Highlight the key differences in the nature of
conditions and costs between these two types
of problems.
2. Two Kinds of Problems
 Reiterate the two-part structure: condition and
costs.
 Clarify that practical and conceptual problems
share this structure but differ in the kinds of
conditions and costs involved.
3. Condition of a Practical Problem
 Explain that the condition of a practical problem
can be any state of affairs imposing tangible
costs.
 Provide examples: a flat tire causing the tangible
cost of missing a dinner date.
4. Condition of a Conceptual Problem
 Contrast conceptual problems, where the
condition is always related to not knowing or
not understanding something.
 Introduce the three-step sentence for
identifying the condition of a conceptual
problem.
1. Examples of Conceptual Problems
 Illustrate conceptual problems using examples:
 Direct Question: How have romantic movies changed in the last fifty years?
 Indirect Question: I want to find out how romantic movies have changed in the
last fifty years.
2. Consequence of a Conceptual Problem
 Distinguish between the tangible cost in practical problems and the consequence in
conceptual problems.
 Emphasize that the consequence is a particular kind of ignorance, a lack of
understanding leading to more significant questions.
3. Expressing Consequence
 Stress the importance of expressing the consequence of a conceptual problem.
 Use the three-step formula to explain how to frame the consequence in the indirect
question.
4. Connecting to Larger Questions
 Emphasize the significance of conceptual consequences by connecting them to
larger, more important questions.
 Show how each answer (Q1) helps answer a more crucial question (Q2).
5. Distinguishing "Pure" and "Applied" Research
 Define "pure" and "applied" research.
 Highlight that pure research improves understanding within a community of
researchers, while applied research has practical consequences.
1. Connecting Research to Practical Consequences
 Explain the importance of showing a plausible
connection between steps 2 and 3 in applied
research.
 Introduce a test for formulating applied
research projects.
2. Practical Application in Pure Research
 Suggest adding practical application as a fourth
step in pure research to address potential
practical consequences.
 Emphasize presenting the problem as purely
conceptual in the introduction and introducing
practical application in the conclusion.
3. Value of Pure Research
 Discuss the value researchers place on pure
research, emphasizing the pursuit of knowledge
"for its own sake."
 Acknowledge the importance of understanding
and a richer life of the mind.
4. Conclusion
 Summarize the key points: two-part structure,
differences in conditions and costs, expressing
consequences, and the distinction between pure
and applied research.
 Conclude with the idea that both pure and
applied research, when done well and ethically,
contribute to knowledge and understanding.
Finding a Good Research Problem

1. Introduction
 Recognizing great researchers: ability to stumble
upon problems reshaping our worldview.
 Importance of understanding and formulating a
clear research problem.
2. Beginning a Project
 Researchers may start without a clear problem,
aiming to define or clarify a puzzle.
 Highlight the significance of finding new
problems or refining existing ones.
3. Project Formulation
 Encouragement not to be discouraged if the
problem isn't fully formulated at the start.
 Early contemplation saves time, reduces panic,
and aligns with advanced work.
4. Identifying and Refining a Good Problem
 Strategies for problem identification and
refinement.
5. Ask for Help (4.3.1)
 Seek input from colleagues, teachers,
classmates, friends, etc.
 Consider the broader implications and potential
interest in your question.
 Encourage exploration of smaller problems
within larger contexts.
1. Look for Problems as You Read (4.3.2)
 Spot contradictions, inconsistencies, or
incomplete explanations in your sources.
 Caution against correcting misreadings and
emphasize the need for real gaps.
 Highlight the importance of examining the last
few pages for suggested questions.
2. Example: Identifying a Research Problem
 Illustrate the process with a paragraph
highlighting a potential research problem in a
source.
 Emphasize the importance of finding a problem
waiting to be addressed.
3. Look at Your Own Conclusion (4.3.3)
 Leverage critical reading of your own drafts to
discover unanticipated claims.
 Encourage asking what question the claim
might answer.
 Emphasize the paradox of answering a question
before posing it and the need to identify the
problem.
4. Conclusion
 Summarize the importance of recognizing and
refining a good research problem.
 Encourage continuous thinking about the
problem throughout the project.
Making Good Arguments - An Overview

1. Introduction
 Highlight the importance of presenting research
results effectively.
 Emphasize the need for more than a mere "data
dump."
2. Argument as a Conversation with Readers
 Explain that sharing research involves making a claim,
providing reasons and evidence, acknowledging other
views, and explaining principles of reasoning.
 Relate argumentation to a conversation by illustrating
a dialogue between Abby and Brett.
3. Elements of a Research Argument
 Break down the five essential elements of a research
argument:
 Claim: What do you want your readers to
believe? What's your main point?
 Reasons: Why are you making this claim? What
supports your argument?
 Evidence: How do you know? Can you provide
supporting data?
 Acknowledgment and Response: How do you
address opposing views or counterarguments?
 Warrant: What's the logical connection? Can
you explain your reasoning?
4. Conversation Example: Abby and Brett
 Use the conversation between Abby and Brett as an
analogy for constructing a research argument.
 Highlight how Abby's questions align with the
elements of a research argument.
1. Relatability to Conversations
 Encourage the audience to relate their research
argument to everyday conversations.
 Emphasize that assembling a research argument is a
structured process, answering questions similar to
those in the Abby and Brett dialogue.
2. Research Process
 Connect the five elements to the research process.
 Emphasize that conducting research is essentially
figuring out answers to these questions.
3. Conclusion
 Summarize the key takeaway: Research argumentation
involves structured elements similar to a thoughtful
conversation.
 Encourage the audience to approach their research as
a dialogue with their readers
Supporting Your Claim

Introduction
 Emphasize the significance of supporting your main claim in a research argument.
 Highlight the two essential forms of support: reasons and evidence.
Main Claim
 Clarify that your main claim is the central solution to your research question or
problem.
 Stress the importance of providing robust backing for this claim.
Supporting Claims with Reasons
 Introduce the first form of support: reasons.
 Define a reason as a statement that guides readers towards accepting your claim.
 Example: "Elementary schools should prioritize teaching foreign languages
because we acquire
 Languages best and most easily when we are young."
Multiple Reasons
 Explain that a single reason may not suffice; multiple reasons often strengthen an
argument.
 Illustrate with an example:
 Reason 1: Acquiring languages is best in youth.
 Reason 2: Adults rarely attain fluency compared to those who learn as
children.
 Reason 3: Teaching languages contributes to children’s ethical development.
 Reason 4: It fosters awareness of cultures beyond their own.
Interconnected Reasons
 Emphasize that reasons may be interconnected, building a chain of support.
 Example: Reason 2 supports Reason 1 and connects to Claim 2; Reason 3 supports
Claim 1, and so on.
Complex Arguments
 Acknowledge that in complex arguments, reasons themselves may require
additional support.
 Example: Supporting Reason 3 with the ethical development aspect.
Visual Representation
 Use a visual representation (flowchart or diagram) to illustrate the
interconnectedness of reasons and claims.
Conclusion
 Recap the importance of supporting your main claim with well-founded reasons.
 Highlight that this support enhances the overall strength and credibility of your
research argument.
Base Reasons on Evidence

Introduction
 Emphasize the critical role of evidence in supporting reasons within a research
argument.
 Highlight that while reasons provide logical connections, evidence serves as the
factual foundation.
Reasons and Evidence Distinction
 Clarify the difference between reasons and evidence.
 Illustrate the importance of this distinction in constructing sound arguments.
Semantics and Crucial Distinctions
 Acknowledge that in casual language, "reasons" and "evidence" may seem
interchangeable.
 Emphasize that, in serious discourse, distinguishing between them is crucial.
Semantics Example
 Provide examples:
 "You have to base your claim on good reasons."
 "You have to base your claim on good evidence."
 Emphasize that they are not synonymous.
Unique Characteristics of Evidence
 Highlight differences:
 Reasons are thought up by the mind.
 Evidence is searched for "out there" in the world.
1. Seeking Evidence
 Discuss the concept of seeking evidence in the
external world and making it accessible to others.
 Contrast with generating reasons through thought
processes.
2. Questioning Evidence vs. Reasons
 Emphasize the distinction: "What evidence do you
base your reason on?" vs. "What reason do you base
your evidence on?"
 Reinforce that reasons are grounded in evidence, not
the other way around.
3. Serious Discourse Expectations
 In serious issues, underscore the expectation that
each reason is supported by its foundation of
evidence.
 Cite an example involving teaching foreign languages
in elementary schools.
4. Example Illustration
 Demonstrate the integration of reasons and evidence
in an argument:
 Claim: Elementary schools should prioritize
teaching foreign languages.
 Reason: Acquiring languages is best in youth.
 Evidence: Jones (2013) study on second-
language proficiency (refer to table 1).
5. Core of a Research Argument
 Summarize: Core consists of Claim, Reason based on
Evidence.
 Emphasize that, in most cases, acknowledging other
viewpoints and offering warrants complement this
core.
1. Introduction
 Emphasize the scrutiny your research argument
will undergo.
 Highlight the importance of anticipating,
acknowledging, and responding to readers'
questions and objections.
2. Careful Reader Expectations
 Stress that careful readers will question every
part of the argument.
 Explain the need for anticipating potential
questions to strengthen the overall argument.
3. Example Scenario
 Introduce an example scenario:
 Claim: Elementary schools should prioritize
teaching foreign languages.
 Potential Question: Will this detract from
teaching other subjects?
4. Wise Anticipation and Acknowledgment
 Advise anticipating potential questions.
 Demonstrate wisdom in acknowledging and
responding:
 Claim: Priority to foreign languages
(Reason 1).
 Anticipated Question: Might this detract
from other subjects?
 Acknowledgment: Quality in other subjects
might decline.
 Response: Little evidence supports this
fear; much dispels it.
5. Common Anticipated Questions
 List potential common questions readers might
Challenge for Researchers
 Acknowledge the challenge: Imagining readers' questions in advance.
 Reference the forthcoming chapter (Chapter 10) for addressing this challenge.
Completing the Argument
 Reinforce that acknowledgments and responses are integral.
 Add to the diagram to illustrate their relationship with other argument components.
Diagram Inclusion
 Show the updated diagram with acknowledgment and response integrated.
 Illustrate how it enhances the completeness and robustness of the research argument.
Overall Significance
 Summarize: Acknowledging and responding contribute to a well-rounded, resilient
argument.
 Encourage researchers to actively engage with potential objections and questions
throughout their work.
  Highlight the need for not just establishing
reasons but connecting them effectively to the
main claim.
 Introduce the concept of warrants as bridges
between reasons and claims.
2. Example Scenario
 Present an example scenario:
 Claim: Higher health care costs due to
climate change.
 Reason: Movement of hard freezes
northward.
 Address the potential reader objection: What's
the relevance between hard freezes and health
care costs?
3. Understanding Warrants
 Explain the function of a warrant as a general
principle.
 Emphasize that warrants justify the connection
between specific reasons and the broader
claims.
4. Logic Behind Warrants
 Break down the logic behind warrants:
 Agreement on the truth or reasonableness
of the warrant.
 Agreement on the truth or reasonableness
of the reason.
 Plausibility of the specific reason as an
instance of the general circumstance.
 Plausibility of the specific consequence as
an instance of the general consequence.
5. Illustrative Diagram
1. Occasions for Warrants
 Share insights on when to use warrants:
 When readers might question the relevance of a reason.
 When explaining the reasoning methods of a specific field to general readers.
2. Adding Warrants to the Diagram
 Show how warrants can be seamlessly integrated into the existing diagram.
 Highlight their role in solidifying the connection between reasons and claims.
3. Warrant Example
 Provide a specific example warrant:
 "When an area has fewer hard freezes, it can expect higher medical costs to
cope with diseases carried by subtropical insects that do not survive freezes."
4. Conclusion
 Summarize the importance of warrants in reinforcing the logical connection within
a research argument.
 Encourage researchers to judiciously use warrants to enhance the coherence of
their claims and reasons.
Building Complex Arguments: Moving Beyond the Basics

Basic Argument Elements

 Five fundamental elements constitute a "basic" argument.

Complexity of Research Arguments

 Research arguments require a higher level of complexity.

 Claims are supported by multiple reasons, each needing additional support and justification.

Responding to Alternatives and Objections

 Careful researchers must address various alternatives and objections to their complex
arguments.
 Readers often consider different perspectives, requiring thoughtful responses.

Subclaims and Supporting Arguments

 Each reason, warrant, or objection response may become a subclaim.

 Subclaims demand their own supporting arguments and evidence.

Standalone Evidence

 While evidence "stands alone," it may require explanation of its origin, reliability, and how it
supports a reason.
 Building a compelling argument involves meticulous attention to the supporting evidence.
Background and Definitions

 Most arguments include essential background, definitions, and explanations

for reader understanding.
 Providing context is crucial, especially when addressing unfamiliar concepts
or issues.

Example: Economic Theory Argument

 Illustration: Explaining the relationship between inflation and money supply

to readers unfamiliar with economic theory.
 Demonstrating the need for detailed explanations in complex arguments.

Slide 9: Complexity as a Construct

 Serious arguments are intricate constructions.

 The interplay of claims, reasons, evidence, subclaims, and supporting
arguments contributes to the overall complexity.

Conclusion

 In conclusion, constructing a complex argument requires a nuanced

approach, careful consideration of various elements, and a thorough
understanding of the subject matter.
Making
Claims
Understanding Conceptual Claims

 Distinguishing between practical and conceptual claims is essential.

 Claims address diverse questions about existence, characterization, origins, value, and
action.

Categories of Conceptual Claims

 Different questions implicit in a claim require distinct types of evidence.

 Conceptual claims can be categorized into:
 Claims of fact or existence
 Example: Average global temperatures have risen to unprecedented levels within
the past decade.
 Claims of definition and classification
 Example: Birds, not reptiles, are the direct descendants of dinosaurs.
 Claims of cause and consequence
 Example: Exposure to asbestos is a leading contributor to lung cancer.
 Claims of evaluation or appraisal
 Example: Shakespeare’s greatest comedy is As You Like It.
 Claims of action or policy
 Example: Pennsylvania should increase extraction fees on natural gas drilling to
fund education.
Evaluating Your Claim

 Evaluating claims is crucial for effective communication with your audience.

Expectations of Readers
 Readers expect claims to be both specific and significant.
Make Your Claim Specific
 Vague claims result in unclear arguments.
 Specific claims aid in argument planning and reader comprehension.
Specificity through Precise Language
 Precision enhances claim specificity.
 Example:
 Vague Claim: "TV inflates estimates of crime rates."
 Specific Claim: "Graphic reports of violence on local TV news lead regular viewers
to overestimate by as much as 150 percent both the rate of crime in their
neighborhood and the personal danger to themselves and their families."
Explicit Logic for Clarity
 Clear and explicit logic reinforces claim specificity.
 Helps in maintaining reader focus throughout the argument.
Conclusion
 Evaluating and refining your claim is essential for constructing a compelling argument.
 Specificity and significance contribute to a more impactful communication with your
audience.
Crafting Precise Claims

Vague vs. Specific Claims

 The first claim is vague, providing little insight into upcoming content.
 The second claim introduces specific concepts, enhancing clarity for readers and
providing a foundation for the writer.
Precision in Claiming
 Precision in a claim serves as a signal for the likely progression of the argument.
 Long, wordy claims are not recommended, but an initial inclusion of more terms
helps in developing a richer set of concepts.
Benefits of Inclusion
 Inclusion of additional terms in early claim versions benefits the writer.
 The final claim should be as specific as needed for readers, incorporating only the
key concepts developed as themes in the argument.
Explicit Logic in Claims

Single Proposition:
 Claim: Regular TV viewers overestimate both the rate of crime in their neighborhood
and the personal danger to themselves and their families.
Common in Sciences:
 Such claims are common and preferred in natural and social sciences.
Humanities Perspective:
 In the humanities, this claim might be perceived as thin.
Elaborating Logic:
 Qualifying Clause: Introduce the claim with a clause using "although" or "even though."
 Reason-Clause: Conclude the claim with a clause using "because."
Example Elaboration:
 Example: Although violent crime is actually decreasing, regular TV viewers overestimate
their neighborhood crime rate by 150 percent.
 Therefore, misjudge personal danger to themselves and their families because local TV
evening news regularly opens with graphic reports of mayhem and murder in familiar
locations.
Demonstration:
 Elaborating the claim enhances its depth and provides a more comprehensive
understanding.
Consideration in Drafting:
 When drafting a working claim, consider employing both qualifying and reason clauses
for explicit logic.
Strategic Use of Language:
 The strategic use of language contributes to a more nuanced and compelling argument.
Final Result:
 The final claim with explicit logic offers a more robust foundation for discussion.
Takeaway:
 Incorporating explicit logic through qualifying and reason clauses enriches the depth
and persuasiveness of your claims.
School Uniforms and Violence in Public Schools

Common belief: School uniforms reduce violence in public

schools.

• Weakness in Evidence:
• Claim Qualification: Evidence supporting this claim is weak.
• Reason 1: Lack of control for other measures implemented
simultaneously with uniforms.
• Reason 2: Statistical suspicion in the reported data.
• Caution in Claim Formulation:
• Acknowledgment: Final drafts should avoid overly inflated
claims.
• Advice: A richer working claim enhances the overall
satisfaction of the argument.
Making Your Claim Significant

Introduction
 Significance is a crucial quality of a claim.
Measuring Significance
 Readers assess significance by the extent a claim challenges existing
beliefs.
 It's not quantifiable, but we can estimate it by considering how much
change the claim demands.
Estimating Significance
 Consider the impact on readers if the claim is accepted.
 More significant claims necessitate a broader shift in beliefs.
Challenging Deep Beliefs
 The most significant claims challenge a research community's
fundamental beliefs.
 Resistance is expected when attempting to change deep-seated
convictions.
Different Perspectives on Significance
 Some communities find a claim significant if it introduces new evidence
on a common topic.
 Example: Uncovering six thirteenth-century Latin grammars of the Welsh
language.
Value of New Data
 Readers appreciate research that not only provides new data but also
resolves puzzling or inconsistent aspects.
 The use of data to address problems enhances the perceived value of
the research.
Example: Settling Puzzles with Data
 Illustration: Describing the discovery of unique thirteenth-century Latin
grammars.
 Emphasize the role of such findings in enhancing our understanding of
medieval grammars.
Conclusion
 Making a claim significant involves challenging existing beliefs and
providing valuable insights.
 Readers value research that not only presents new data but also resolves
existing puzzles or inconsistencies.
Enhancing Credibility Through Qualified Claims
 Introduction:
 New researchers often believe forceful claims enhance credibility.
 However, arrogant certainty damages ethos.
 Paradox of Modesty:
 Paradoxically, acknowledging limits strengthens the argument.
 Modest acknowledgment of limitations fosters credibility.
 Building Trust with Readers:
 Gain reader trust by acknowledging and responding to their views.
 Demonstrating understanding and consideration of opposing positions is
essential.
 Avoiding Overreach:
 Overreaching claims can lead to a loss of trust.
 Limit claims to what the argument can genuinely support.
 Qualifying Scope and Certainty:
 Enhance credibility by qualifying the scope and certainty of claims.
 Align claims with the actual support provided in the argument.
 Conclusion:
 In summary, credibility is strengthened not through forceful certainty but by
acknowledging limitations, considering opposing views, and qualifying claims
appropriately.
Acknowledging Limiting Conditions in Claims
Introduction
 Every claim is accompanied by limiting conditions.
Examples of Limiting Conditions
 Illustration 1: Epicenter of an earthquake claim contingent on accurate
instrumentation calibration.
 Illustration 2: Aviation manufacturing claim dependent on potential increase
in military spending due to global conflicts.
Countless Conditions
 Emphasize that every claim is subject to numerous conditions.
 Mention only those that readers might plausibly consider.
Scientific vs. Economic Claims
 Scientists often assume instrument accuracy, while economists acknowledge
limits due to changing conditions.
 Economists address reader expectations by specifying conditions to watch
for.
Importance of Mentioning Limiting Conditions
 Even if not immediately apparent, consider mentioning important
limiting conditions.
 Example: Careful acknowledgment in a historical claim about Franklin D.
Roosevelt's popularity.
Detailed Example: Roosevelt's Popularity
 Historical claim: Roosevelt's unpopularity toward the end of his second
term.
 Acknowledgment: Newspapers attacking him for socialism.
 Response to Limitation: Addressing arguments against the claim by
Nicholson and Wiggins.
Significance of Limiting Conditions
 Stress the importance of acknowledging limiting conditions to present a
fuller and more accurate statement of a claim.
 Example: Restatement of claim based on the limitation regarding
newspapers critical of Roosevelt.
Conclusion
 In conclusion, recognizing and addressing limiting conditions in claims is
essential for building credible and nuanced arguments. Acknowledging
these conditions adds depth and accuracy to the overall argument.
Assembling
Reasons and
Evidence
1: Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument

 Logical Structure:
 Ordering reasons creates a logical framework for your argument.
 Testing the Structure:
 Traditional outlines or alternative visualization methods help assess the coherence of your argument.
 Storyboard Technique:
 Consider using a storyboard by placing main claims and reasons on separate index cards or pages.
 Arranging Logical Relationships:
 List evidence below each reason or subreason.
 Arrange pages or index cards on a table or wall to visualize logical connections.
 Assessing Order:
 Review reasons without delving into details to evaluate the overall sense of the argument's order.
 Experimentation:
 If the order lacks coherence, try different arrangements until a logical flow is achieved.
 Preliminary Outline:
 At this stage, you are outlining your argument, not the final paper.
 Consideration for Drafting:
 When moving to the first draft, reconsider reasons in light of reader understanding, potentially
rearranging for clarity.
Introduction

 Distinguishing Evidence from Reasons: Crucial Elements in Building

Convincing Arguments

Arranging Reasons in a Plausible Order

 Organize reasons in a logical order before considering evidence.

 Plausibility is key to reader acceptance.

Importance of Sufficient Evidence

 Ensure each reason is supported by ample evidence.

 Readers demand a solid foundation of established facts before
accepting a reason.

Readers' Role in Acceptance

 Readers decide the credibility of reasons; authors do not.

 Evidence must align with readers' perceptions of established facts.
Definition of Evidence in Argumentation

 Evidence, in the context of argumentation, is a statement universally

agreed upon for the argument's purpose.
 The challenge arises when readers question the presented evidence.

Example Argument: Higher Education Costs

 Claim: American higher education must curb escalating tuition costs.

 Reason: The price of college impedes the American dream.
 Evidence: Majority of students leave college with a crushing debt burden.

Identifying "Soft" Reasons

 Readers may treat a statement as a "soft" reason if it lacks hard evidence.

 Example: Skeptical reader challenges generalizations without concrete
data.

Strengthening Evidence with Specifics

 To bolster evidence, provide specific data.

 Example: In 2013, 70% of students borrowed $30,000 on average for
college, hindering home ownership and pursuing advanced degrees.
Addressing Skepticism

 Anticipate skeptical inquiries and respond with more detailed data.

 If using secondary sources, be prepared to prove their reliability.

Establishing a Bedrock of Uncontested Evidence

 Readers seek a bedrock of evidence uncontested by skepticism.

 Addressing repeated inquiries ensures a robust foundation for the
argument.

The Skepticism Challenge

 In an era of quick expert opinions, readers approach reported evidence

skeptically.
 Understanding and addressing skepticism is essential in presenting a
convincing argument.

Transparency in Evidence Collection

 Clearly communicate how evidence was collected and by whom.

 Citing sources closest to the evidence enhances transparency and
credibility.