CHANGING

NATURE OF
WARFARE
NICK
ESSIEN
 OUTLINE

•Background and Overview

•Generations of Warfare
•Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)

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 BACKGROUND OR OVERVIEW
Over the centuries, warfare has undergone significant
transformation, due to new discoveries and innovative
application of technologies.

These inventions and discoveries have resulted in

dramatic changes in military doctrine as well as
operational and organizational concepts.

These changes have also altered the character and

conduct of military operations.
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 BACKGROUND OR OVERVIEW
The changing face of war was categorised as
“generations of warfare” in 1989 by a team of US
analysts, led by William S Lind.
The taxonomy of warfare has been classified into four
generations.
The first three generations of warfare been the era of
conventional conflicts between large armies
To the fourth generation warfare (4GW) is
characterized by the increasing role of non-state actors
in an asymmetrical conflict with conventional forces.
Therefore, blurring of lines between politics and
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 BACKGROUND OR OVERVIEW
The changing nature of warfare is also reflected in the
concept of Revolution in Military Affairs
(RMA).
The genesis of this concept began in Russia in the
early 1980s, and later evolved into the “RMA”
concept through the work of military thinkers
primarily in the US.
An “RMA” is deemed to have occurred when, over
some relatively brief period, the character of conflict
changes dramatically, requiring equally dramatic
changes in military doctrine and organizations.

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 GENERATIONS OF WARFARE
FIRST GENERATION Warfare

First Generation Warfare is stated to the tactics of line and

column. These tactics were developed partially in response
to technological factors – the line maximized firepower,
rigid drill
was necessary to generate a high rate of fire, etc – and to
some extent in response to social
conditions and ideas. Remnants of first generation tactics
survive today, especially in the form
of rigid drills and the frequently felt need for linearity on
the battlefield. In this era, operational
art did not exist as a concept, although it was practiced by
many famous commanders, most
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prominently Napoleon.
 GENERATIONS OF WARFARE
Second Generation Warfare

Second Generation Warfare was a response to the

rifled musket, the machinegun, and indirect
fire. Tactics were based on fire and movement,
although these remained essentially linear. The
defender still attempted to block all penetrations, and
in the attack a laterally dispersed line
advanced by rushes in small groups. Second
generation tactics are adequately captured by the
French maxim, “the artillery conquers, the infantry
occupies.” Massed firepower substituted
massed manpower. 7
 GENERATIONS OF WARFARE
Third Generation Warfare

Third Generation Warfare was also a result of

increased battlefield firepower, with the driving
force being primarily ideas. As a consequence of their
weaker industrial base in World War I,
the Germans developed radically new tactics. Based
on manoeuver rather than attrition, third
generation tactics were truly nonlinear in nature. The
tactics of attack relied on bypassing the
enemy’s combat forces rather than seeking to close
with and destroy them. The defence was in
depth and often facilitated penetration, which set the 8
 GENERATIONS OF WARFARE
Third Generation Warfare

Thus we see the major catalysts for change in previous

generational shifts: technology and
ideas. When William S Lind categorized the first three
generations as discussed above in 1989,
he also gazed into the future as to how Fourth
Generation Warfare would develop. Many other
authors have delved on this subject and there is no
universally accepted definition of Fourth
Generation Warfare. However, there does appear to be
general agreement on the basic
concept, which is brought out in succeeding slides 9
 GENERATIONS OF WARFARE
Fourth Generation Warfare

Fourth Generation Warfare, or 4GW, is characterized

by blurring of the lines between war and
politics, combatants and civilians. It signifies the
nation states' loss of their near-monopoly on
combat forces, returning to modes of conflict
prevalent in earlier times. In its simplest definition,
4GW would include any war in which one of the
major participants is a violent non-state actor.
Guerrilla tactics resorted to in the Vietnam War would
classify as an example of this type of
conflict. 10
 SUMMARY
The First Generation battlefield was usually a battlefield of
order, and it created a culture of order in state militaries.
Second Generation War also preserved the military culture of
order. Second Generation militaries focused inward on rules,
processes and procedure, seeking to achieve perfection of detail
in execution.
Third Generation War, as defined, diverges from the military
culture of order. Here the focus is external, to the situation, the
enemy and the desired result. Leaders at every level are expected
to produce the results, even if this means deviating
from orders. Third Generation military culture values initiative
over obedience, and it relies on self-discipline rather than
imposed discipline, because only self-discipline is compatible
with initiative.
Given its complex nature, 4GW can be seen as a shift towards 11
even greater disorder in the battle space.
 Fifth Generation Warfare
The Fifth Generation of Warfare
The use of technology
1. Air Defense System
2. Aerospace Defense System
3. Missile and Space Defense System

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 SUMMARY
The First Generation battlefield was usually a battlefield of
order, and it created a culture of order in state militaries.
Second Generation War also preserved the military culture of
order. Second Generation militaries focused inward on rules,
processes and procedure, seeking to achieve perfection of detail
in execution.
Third Generation War, as defined, diverges from the military
culture of order. Here the focus is external, to the situation, the
enemy and the desired result. Leaders at every level are expected
to produce the results, even if this means deviating
from orders. Third Generation military culture values initiative
over obedience, and it relies on self-discipline rather than
imposed discipline, because only self-discipline is compatible
with initiative.
Given its complex nature, 4GW can be seen as a shift towards 13
even greater disorder in the battle space.
The National Interest
Nigeria's fundamental principles of foreign policy have remained
consistent since gaining independence in October 1960, with the national
interest being the primary factor in determining the country's position in
international affairs (Ashiru, 2013). In his work published in 1987,
Oshuntokun provides valuable insight into the elements that make up
Nigeria's national interest. He argues that it encompasses internal
cohesion, national unity, the establishment of an equitable and content
society, providing equal opportunities for everyone to pursue their desired
career paths and ensuring employment for those who are willing to work.
Additionally, it entails preserving the traditional rights of freedom of
speech, political association, religion, and equality before the law. Along
with these, there is a need to defend the humanity and rights of all black
men through deliberate actions and policies..

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CONTINUATION

• Once we agree about our national interest then it follows that these national interests are worth
defending. However, it is important to note that Nigeria's national interests have been largely
determined and defined by the various leaderships.

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according to Ajayi (2004) and Olukoshi (1992), the following broadly
spells out what constitutes the national interests of the country

• The defence of her sovereignty, independence
and territorial integrity;
• (ii) The creation of the necessary political and
economic condition in the country, Africa and
the rest of the world, which will facilitate the
defence of the independence and territorial
integrity of all African countries while at the
same foster national self-reliance and rapid
economic development;
• (iii) The promotion of equality and self-
reliance in Africa and the rest of the
developing world;
• (iv) The promotion and defense of justice
and respect for human dignity especially the
dignity of the black man; and
• (v) The defence and promotion of
international peace and security."

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 CONTINUATION

• Our concern here is to identify how national interests has influenced,

affected or determined the Nigeria's foreign policy choices. One of
the national interests as stated above is the defence of her
sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity, internal cohesion
and national unity and this have shaped the Nigeria's foreign policy
preference. For instance, during the civil war (1967- 1970), as
Nigeria fought to defend her territory against the threat of Biafra
secession and possible disintegration of the country population and
territory, when Britain who has been the major source of Nigeria's
arms supply refused to supply offensive weapons to Nigeria on the
protest of humanitarian grounds, Nigeria found herself in a difficult
position.

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CONTINUATION

• France, the Netherlands, Czechoslovakia, and the United States also followed Britain's example of
unwillingness. Due to national interest, Gowon's regime had no choice but to turn to the Soviet
Union and its satellite states for the supply of offensive weapons. This decision was made to defend
Nigeria's territory and maintain its sovereignty over the entire nation. As a result, Gowon's regime
radically shifted Nigeria's foreign policy from the pro-Western attitude inherited from Balewa,
which it had initially been willing to follow (Dauda, 2006:16).
• Hence, this has given credence to scholars who viewed Nigeria's national interest as "anything that
will enhance the capacity of Nigerians to defend their national security"and "foreign policy, if it
means anything is the strategy of defending a nation's national interest through diplomacy and when
diplomacy fails the same interest may be defended through war and the force of arms"

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CONTINUATION

• It is commonly believed by some foreign policy analysts that Nigeria's foreign policy choices have not
been influenced by its national interests over the years. For instance, Nigeria spent billions of dollars to
restore peace in Sierra Leone and Liberia, without receiving any significant economic, social, or
political benefits in return. This is despite the fact that Nigerians themselves do not enjoy basic
fundamental rights or social welfare within their own country. Critics have pointed out that Nigeria's
foreign policy lacks nationalism, and while Nigeria boasts a strong profile of peacekeeping experience
abroad, the reality at home is quite different. In fact, Nigeria has stretched itself thin over the years to
maintain peace in other countries, while the situation at home remains far from ideal.
• This explains the social decadence, infrastructural backwardness, and growing insecurity that manifests
in the Boko Haram insurgency, militancy in the Niger Delta and incidences of high profile kidnap.

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Personal Idiosyncrasy of • A major determinant of Nigeria's foreign policy is the
character of the political leadership at the federal level
Political Leadership be it under the civilian or military rule. The degree of
dynamism or otherwise of the country's foreign policy is
dependent on the type of leadership the country has at a
given time. Foreign policies of Nigeria or, indeed that of
any other nation could largely be determined by the
disposition or perception of the country's leader. Obi
(2006) stated that for students of politics to understand
the leader’s idiosyncrasy dimension of foreign policy is
reading the lips of the President. They gave a good
example of how the idiosyncrasy of the political leaders
influence or determine the foreign policy of the nation
was the attitude of Tafawa Balewa to the Angola crisis
which was antithetical to the attitude meted to the same
country by Murtala Mohammed

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CONTINUATION

• Similarly, Gen. Sani Abacha vigorously pursued

diplomatic relations with the Middle East and Asian
countries in disdain to Western countries that were
critical of his dictatorial tendencies and alleged
human rights violation. President Obasanjo's foreign
policy disposition, on the other hand, is largely pro-
West. Thus, the idiosyncrasy of the leader is a
determinant factor that shapes the foreign policy of a
nation. This is also applicable to Nigeria.

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Structure of the Nation's Economy

The economic structure of a nation plays a significant role in

shaping its foreign policy decisions. Nigeria, upon gaining
independence in 1960, began making conscious efforts to
establish itself as a relevant player on the global stage. The
Nigerian economy, at the time, relied heavily on the production of
agricultural raw materials such as cocoa and coffee for export.
Consequently, the country was vulnerable to the market price
fluctuations of these commodities which dictated the sales.

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This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
CONTINUATION
Nigeria aggressively began programs that would make it relevant regionally and
in the world. The agricultural sector then formed the bulk of Nigeria's exports.
According to Ofoegbu (1980:163-164) Prior to 1980, Nigeria's development plans
were mainly financed through private economic and financial investments.
However, the primary source of private investment was foreign, with investors
coming from Western powers such as Britain, the USA, the Netherlands, and
Western Germany. After independence in 1960-1961, Nigeria's international trade
structure revealed a significant reliance on the West, accounting for 92.6% of
exports in 1961 and 81.8% of imports in 1971.
The economy structure reflects a predominant British share of the trade both
at independence and ten years thereafter. It shows a pro-western economic
foreign policy choice.

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CONTINUATION
• The period following Nigeria's independence and up until the mid-
1970s witnessed a rapid growth in industrial capacity and output.
During this time, the manufacturing sector's contribution to GDP
increased from 4.8% to 8.2%. However, this trend changed when oil
suddenly became of strategic importance to the world economy
through its supply-price nexus. This over-dependence on petroleum oil
was more apparent in the external sector trends. According to Adedipe
(2004), this shift in reliance on oil had a significant impact on
Nigeria's economy.
• The preference for importing goods is evident in the account balances,
which included a significant oil component that expanded at an annual
average rate of 57.7% from 1971 to 1980, 43% from 1981 to 1990,
and 40.3% from 1991 to 1998. The account balance grew in line with
the oil revenue trend, indicating an increase in imports as oil earnings
grew.

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CONTINUATION

• One of the positive impacts of the oil economy boom for instance, as Aluko (1981) points out, is
that efforts to reconcile with geographic neighbours and achieve a sub-regional leadership role were
facilitated by Nigeria’s boom. The petroleum price increases of the early 1970s and the Arab energy
embargo of 1973 generated an enormous rise in Nigerian state revenue. At the same time, Nigeria
was attracting increased foreign direct investment. The Federal Government of Nigeria used this
new income to pursue a more ambitious sub-regional economic foreign policy action. For instance,
Nigeria provided financial assistance to its neighbours, with the aim of weaning them off
dependence on France. In 1974, the state announced that it would sell oil at concessionary prices to
its energy-poor neighbours. Nigeria also used regional economic integration as a means of
advancing its leadership and reducing local French influence.

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CONTINUATION

• One of the positive impacts of the oil economy boom for instance, as Aluko (1981) points out, is
that efforts to reconcile with geographic neighbours and achieve a sub-regional leadership role were
facilitated by Nigeria’s boom. The petroleum price increases of the early 1970s and the Arab energy
embargo of 1973 generated an enormous rise in Nigerian state revenue. At the same time, Nigeria
was attracting increased foreign direct investment. The Federal Government of Nigeria used this
new income to pursue a more ambitious sub-regional economic foreign policy action. For instance,
Nigeria provided financial assistance to its neighbours, with the aim of weaning them off
dependence on France. In 1974, the state announced that it would sell oil at concessionary prices to
its energy-poor neighbours. Nigeria also used regional economic integration as a means of
advancing its leadership and reducing local French influence.

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CONTINUATION

• the essential of an economic diplomacy foreign policy framework was inspired by the economic
pressures that were exerted on the Nigerian economy as a result of the introduction of the Structural
Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986 during the Ibrahim Babangida's administration. The focus
was on export promotion, encouragement of direct foreign investment, debt rescheduling,
embracing of neo-liberal economic measures and deep involvement in the interplay of the capitalist
international political economy. The political wing of the economic diplomacy agenda was that
Nigeria will ingratiate itself and cultivate the goodwill and friendship of the leading countries of
Europe, North America and Japan. However, because of the mononature of the Nigeria economy,
the country lacked the economic infrastructure to use economy as a major instrument of diplomatic
engagement.

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 • Nigeria location between West African sub-region and Central
Strategic Location Africa with a coastline bordering the Atlantic Ocean on the West
of the Country Coast of Africa places her in between friendly and unfriendly
states. Nigeria's proximity to the Atlantic Ocean in the South and
her southern location within the Gulf of Guinea impacted the
country's foreign policy preferences.” For instance, in the initial
years after independence, Nigerian government pursued modest
foreign policy aims. The Prime Minister Balewa’s foreign policy
was limited to upholding the principles inscribed in the
Organization of African Unity’s (OAU) 1963 Charter: non-
interference, the legal equality of states, and boundary inviolability
(Ogunbadejo, 1980). All of these interests were encompassed by
the broader Nigerian policy preference for “good-neighborliness.”

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 • Regionally, the country was overshadowed by Ghana, governed by the
Strategic Location charismatic President, Kwame Nkrumah (Ihonvbere, 1991). Nigeria was also

of the Country resisting French encirclement; all of Nigeria’s geographic neighbours are
francophone states strongly influenced by their former colonial superpowers,
even after they achieved formal independence. As such, this French
encirclement impacted Nigeria’s foreign policy actions.
• However, the Post-civil war leadership of Nigeria also went to greater lengths
to reduce France’s influence on Nigeria's African neighbours and to reconcile
with other states in the subregion, including civil war enemies, such as Côte
d’Ivoire, and earlier rivals, like Ghana (Ihonvbere, 1991). Nigeria needed to be
less isolated. The principle of good neighbourliness became a security concern,
as well as a normative principle (Aluko, 1981). Hence, efforts to reconcile with
geographic neighbours and achieve a sub-regional leadership role were
facilitated by Nigeria’s oil boom. The petroleum price increases of the early
1970s and the Arab energy embargo of 1973 generated an enormous rise in
Nigerian state revenue

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