PHYSIOLOGY THALAMUS • Thalamus is a large ovoid mass of gray matter, situated bilaterally in diencephalon.
• Both thalami form 80% of diencephalon.
• Thalami on both sides are connected in their rostral portions by means of an intermediate mass THALAMIC NUCLEI • Thalamic nuclei are classified by two methods: A. Anatomical classification B. Physiological classification. FUNCTIONAL GATEWAY FOR CEREBRAL CORTEX • Almost all the sensations are processed in thalamus before reaching cerebral cortex.
• Very little information of somatosensory
function is sent directly to cerebral cortex without being processed by the thalamic nuclei • Because of this function, thalamus is usually called ‘functional gateway’ for cerebral cortex ANATOMICAL CLASSIFICATION • Thalamus on each side is divided into five main nuclear groups by ‘Y’-shaped internal medullary lamina • 1. Midline nuclei • 2. Intralaminar nuclei • 3. Medial mass of nuclei • 4. Lateral mass of nuclei • 5. Posterior group of nuclei PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION • On the basis of functions and their projections, thalamic nuclei are classified into five groups • This classification aka Bondok classification • 1. Specific sensory relay nuclei • 2. Specific motor nuclei • 3. Association or less specific nuclei • 4. Non-specific nuclei • 5. Limbic system nuclei FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS 1. RELAY CENTER • Thalamus forms the relay center for sensations. • Impulses of almost all the sensations reach the thalamic nuclei, particularly in the VPL nucleus • After being processed, impulses carried to cerebral cortex through thalamocortical fibers FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS 2. CENTER FOR PROCESSING OF SENSORY INFORMATION • Thalamus forms the major center for processing the sensory information • VPL, VPM, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei. • All peripheral sensory impulses are integrated and modified before being sent to specific areas of cortex • This function of thalamus called the processing of sensory information. 3. CENTER FOR DETERMINING QUALITY OF SENSATIONS • determine the affective nature of sensations. Usually the sensations have two qualities: • i. Discriminative nature • ii. Affective nature. i. Discriminative Nature • Discriminative nature is the ability to recognize the type, • location and other details of the sensations and it is the • function of cerebral cortex. ii. Affective Nature • Affective nature is the capacity to determine whether • a sensation is pleasant or unpleasant and agreeable • or disagreeable FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS • 4. CENTER FOR SEXUAL SENSATIONS Thalamus forms the center for perception of sexual sensations • 5. ROLE IN AROUSAL & ALERTNESS REACTIONS Because of its connections with nuclei of reticular formation, thalamus plays an important role in arousaland alertness reactions • 6. CENTER FOR REFLEX ACTIVITY Since the sensory fibers relay here, thalamus forms the center for many reflex activities FUNCTIONS OF THALAMUS • 7. CENTER FOR INTEGRATION OF MOTOR ACTIVITY recieves motor inputs from cerebellum and basal ganglia and projects to premotor and primary motor cortices. LESION OF THALAMUS • Following are the symptoms of thalamic syndrome: • 1. Loss of Sensations(anesthesia)- occurs as the sensory relay system in thalamus is affected. • 2. Astereognosis- the loss of ability to recognize a known object by touch with closed eyes. It is due to the loss of tactile and kinesthetic sensations • 3. Ataxia- refers to in-coordination of voluntary movements. This type of ataxia due to loss of sensation is called sensory ataxia. • 4. Thalamic Phantom Limb- unable to locate position of a limb with closed eyes. The patient may search for the limb in air or may have the illusion that the limb is lost. This is called thalamic phantom limb. 5. SPONTANEOUS PAIN AND THALAMIC OVER-REACTION • Spontaneous pain occurs often. Pain stimulus is felt more acutely than normal (hyperalgesia) • Threshold for pain is very much reduced • May be so intense, to resist action of powerful sedatives like morphine • Sometimes, pain felt in the absence of pain stimulus- becomes worst in conditions such as emotional disturbance • Pain is due to over activity of medial mass of nuclei of thalamus, which escape the lesion
• Abnormal reaction to various stimuli is called
thalamic over-reaction 6. INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS • Athetosis - slow writhing and twisting movements • Chorea - quick, jerky, involuntary movements. • Intention tremor Tremor is defined as rapid alternate rhythmic and involuntary movement of flexion and extension in the joints of fingers and wrist or elbow. • Intention tremor is the tremor that develops while attempting to do any voluntary act THE RETICULAR FORMATION • Set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem • Not anatomically well defined because it includes neurons located in diverse parts of the brain • Neurons play a crucial role in maintaining behavioral arousal and consciousness THE RETICULAR FORMATION • The reticular formation has two components: 1. The ascending reticular formation is- aka Reticular Activating System • Responsible for the sleep-wake cycle, thus mediating various levels of alertness. • This part projects to the mid-line group of the thalamus, which also plays a role in wakefulness. From there, information is sent to the cortex. 2. DESCENDING RETICULAR FORMATION • Involved in posture and equilibrium as well as autonomic nervous system activity • Also plays a role in motor movement. • Receives information from hypothalamus. • The descending reticular nuclei in the brain are involved in reflexive behavior such as coughing, chewing, swallowing and vomiting FUNCTION • Consists of more than 100 small neural networks, with varied functions including the following: • Pain modulation –one means by which pain signals reach the cerebral cortex • Also origin of descending analgesic pathways • Sleep and consciousness –projections to thalamus and cortex allow it to exert some control over which sensory signals reach the cerebrum • Plays a central role in states of consciousness like alertness and sleep • Injury can result to irreversible coma FUNCTION • Somatic motor control –function in maintaining tone, balance and posture—esp. during body movements • Also relays eye and ear signals to cerebellum so that the cerebellum can integrate visual, auditory and vestibular stimuli in motor coordination • Cardiovascular control – Reticular formation includes cardiac and vasomotor centers of medulla oblongata • Habituation– process in which brain learns to ignore repetitive, meaningless stimuli while remaining sensitive to others; - person who can sleep through loud traffic in a large city, but is awakened promptly due to the sound of an alarm or crying baby CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE
• Mass lesions in brainstem cause severe
alterations in level of consciousness (eg coma) because of effects on reticular formation • Bilateral damage to the reticular formation of the midbrain may lead to coma or death • Imaging studies have shown abnormal activity in this area in people with chronic fatigue syndrome, likelihood that damage to the reticular formation is responsible for the fatigue associated with these syndromes The Somatosensory Cortex • Location: • Primary somatosensory cortex: Located on the postcentral gyrus (anterior part of the parietal lobe) • Secondary somatosensory cortex: behind the primary. An association area function • Involved in somatic sensation, visual stimuli and movement planning. • Regions requiring precise sensation occupy larger areas. • Secondary somatosensory area: involved in episodic memory, visuospatial processing, aspects of conc.iousness