HPHY307-SPECIAL SENSES

PHYSIOLOGY
(Vestibular System)
COURSE LECTURER: YUSUF YUSHA’U, PhD 1
 Vestibular System
• Auditory labyrinth (vestibular apparatus) : This is the
part of membranous labyrinth concerned with
equilibrium, and it consists of:

• (a) 3 Semicircular canals (SCCs) and

• (b) 2 sacs (or chambers) called the utricle and saccule.

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Nervous Connections of Vestibular Apparatus
• Signals from the vestibular apparatus are conducted by the vestibular
nerve to the vestibular nucleus.
• Fibres from the vestibular nucleus relay to:
• 1. Spinal cord via vestibulospinal tracts

• 2. Reticular formation , then to the spinal cord (through the

reticulospinal tracts) as well as to the cerebral cortex.

• 3. Medial longitudinal bundles : These coordinate the activity of the

3rd, 4th and 6th cranial nerve nuclei which control the eye
movements.

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• 4. Vestibulocerebellum through the inferior cerebellar
peduncle.

• 5. Cerebral cortex : Labyrinthine fibres reach the

cortical motor areas and the equilibrium centre in the
superior temporal gyrus by 2 ways:

• i. A vestibulo-reticulo-thalamo-cortical pathway·

ii. A vestibulo-cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway.

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 The Utricle and Saccule
• Each of these sacs contains a mechanoreceptor called the
macula or otolith organ.

• This organ is formed from a ridge of supporting cells + hair cells

covered by a gelatinous layer in which the cilia of the hair cells
project and calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths or
otoconia are embedded.

• How are MACULAE stimulated?

• The otoliths are heavier than the endolymph and tend to sink by
the effect of gravity. This causes bending of the cilia, which
excites the hair cells and leads to discharge of signals in the
vestibular nerve.
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 Functions of Utricle and Saccules
• A) Detection of head position (head tilting):
• When the head is tilted. the otoliths are pulled by the effect of
gravity, resulting in bending of the cilia and stimulation of the
maculae.
• The maculae of the utricles detect mainly the forward and backward
tilt of the head while those of the saccule detect head tilt to either
side.

• B) Detection of linear acceleration: The utricles respond to horizontal

acceleration (e.g. when a bus changes its speed), while the saccule
responds to vertical acceleration (e.g. when a person goes up in a Iift
or jumps from a height).
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 The Semicircular Canals (SCCs)
• There are 3 SCCs in each vestibular apparatus (lateral, superior
and posterior canals).

• Each SCC has 2 ends. one of which is enlarged and is called the
ampula. Both ends of each SCC open in the corresponding
utricle, but there are only 5 openings (not 6) because the non-
ampullated ends of the superior and posterior SCCs fuse into a
common opening.

• The ampullated ends of the SCCs contain special

mechanoreceptors known as the cristae ampularis. Each crista
consists of a ridge of supporting and hair cells covered by a
gelatinous wedge-shaped mass called the cupula in which the
cilia of the hair cells project. 7
Semicircular canals

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• How are cristae stimulated?

• This occurs by bending of the cilia as a result of deflection of

the cupulae.

• When the stereocilia bend toward the kinocilium (stiff large

cilium), the hair cell becomes stimulated, while if they bend
away from the kinocilium, the hair cell becomes inhibited.

• Major function of SCCs: SCCs function in detection of angular

acceleration (during a rotatory movement) and initiation of the
appropriate reflexes that maintain equilibrium in such condition.

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 Effects of Stimulation of SCCs
• Nystagmus

• Vertigo

• Past pointing

• The autonomic effects

• Post-rotatory changes in muscle tone

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• Nystagmus is a jerky to and fro movement of the eyes that is
produced by signals discharged from the cristae as a result of
deflection or their cupulae. It happens at the beginning of
rotation and immediately after rotation stops.

• Nystagmus that occurs at the start of rotation helps in

maintaining a stable image on the retina and consists of 2
movements:

• (1) A slow movement that occurs in an opposite direction to that

of rotation.
• (2) A fast movement that occurs in the direction of rotation.

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 Vertigo
• It is a feeling of spinning (rotation) in absence of actual rotation.
• It is felt after rotation stops for about 20s conch in an opposite direction to
that of the original rotation, so it is frequently described as a false
sensation of counter rotation.

• It is due to deflection of the cupulae after stopping rotation in the direction

of the original rotation that happens as a result of movement of the
endolymph by its momentum.

• The sensation of vertigo is perceived at the equilibrium centre in the

superior temporal gyrus of the opposite side.

• Signals from the SCCs are conveyed to this centre via the vestibulo-
cerebelo-thalamo-cortical and the Vestibulo-reticulo-thalamo-cortical 12
pathways.
• Past pointing: Due to a compensatory effect to the sensation
of vertigo after stopping rotation, if the subject with closed eyes
is asked to touch a certain point, his finger deviates to the side
opposite to that of vertigo i.e. in the direction of the original
rotation. This test is known as Barany’s test.

• Autonomic effects: After rotation stops, several autonomic

effects usually occur e.g. bradycardia, hypotension, sweating,
pallor, increased respiratory rate and nausea & vomiting.

• They are produced as a result of stimulation of various

autonomic centres in the reticular formation by signals
discharged from the SCCs.
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• Post-rotatory changes in muscle tone:
• Stimulation of the SCCs initiates reflexes that maintain
the upright posture and equilibrium.

• Such reflexes generally cause an ↑ of muscle tone in

the side of rotation and a ↓ of muscle tone in the
opposite side.

• These effects are produced by signals discharged via

the vestibulospinal and reticulospinal tracts to the spinal
motor neurons.

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 Pathophysiology
• MENIERE'S SYNDROME:

• This is a disease that is characterized by severe

attacks of vertigo, nystagmus and vomiting.

• It is due to increased pressure of the endolymph in the

SCCs.

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 Postural Reflexes
• Postural reflexes resist displacement of the body
caused by the effect of gravity or acceleratory forces.

• Postural reflexes are classified into 2:

• Static reflexes and

• Statokinetic reflexes

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 Static Postural Reflexes
• These reflexes maintain the normal upright posture of the body during
rest. They are elicited by gravitational forces.

• Static postural reflexes are subdivided into: Local, segmental and

general static reflexes.

• Local reflexes involve one limb and are spinal reflexes e.g stretch
reflex.

• Segmental reflexes are also spinal reflexes and involve 2 limbs, e.g
crossed extensor reflex.

• General reflexes involve many body muscles and are further divided
into statotonic and righting reflexes. 17
• Statotonic reflexes are controlled by the vestibular nucleus
in the medulla. They include:

• A. Statotonic neck reflexes which cause changes in the

posture of the limbs in response to changes in head position
relative to the body.

• B. Statonic labyrinthine reflexes that cause changes in

the posture of the limbs in response to changes in head
position in space.

• Statotonic reflexes are best observed in decerebrate

animals.
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• The righting reflexes restore the standing position if it is disturbed
and keep the head upright.

• They are initiated by signals discharged from the otolith organs,

neck proprioceptors & pressure receptors of the body as well as
from the visual receptors. They include midbrain and visual
reflexes.

• Example of visual righting reflex is grasp reflex. This reflex is

normally present in newly-born infants, but it is inhibited in adults
with development of the frontal lobe.

• So lesions of this lobe are associated with reappearance of the

grasp reflex, especially lesions of the premotor area (Brodmann’s
area 6). 19
 Statokinetic Postural Reflexes
• Statokinetic reflexes maintain equilibrium during movement
and are elicited by the forces of acceleration or decelerations.
• Statokinetic reflexes are of 3 kinds:

• 1. Linear acceleration reflexes which keep equilibrium while

moving in a straight line. They are controlled by vestibular
nucleus and involve the interplay of the receptors in the
maculae of otolith organs.

• 2. Angular acceleration reflexes that keep equilibrium during

angular movements. They are controlled by vestibular nucleus
and involve the interplay of the receptors in the cristae of SCCs.
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• 3. Cortical statokinetic reflexes which are integrated in the
cerebral cortex.

• They include hopping, placing and dynamic visual reflexes.

• Maintenance of posture during standing: depends mainly on

proprioceptive and visual signals.

• The proprioceptive signals produce the stretch reflex in the

antigravity muscles as well as the positive supporting reaction,
and its loss (e.g. in tabes dorsalis) results in sensory ataxia and
a +ve Romberg's sign on closing the eyes.

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