Programming I (in C++)

Chapter 2:
Algorithms and Data Structures

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Outline of Topics

◦ What is an algorithm?
◦ Writing Algorithms
◦ Translation of algorithms to flowcharts
and pseudo code
◦ Data Structures and computer programs

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Performing a Task on The Computer
 Step 1: Determine what the output should be
- that is, exactly what the task should produce.
 Step 2: Identify the data, or input, necessary
to obtain the output.
 Step 3: Determine how to process the input to
obtain the desired output, that is, to determine
what formulas or ways of doing things can be
used to obtain the output.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
1. Analyze: Define the problem.
 Be sure you understand what the program
should do, that is, what the output should be.
Have a clear idea of what data (or input) are
given and the relationship between the input
and the desired output.
.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
2. Design: Plan the solution to the problem.
 Find a logical sequence of precise steps that
solve the problem.
Such a sequence of steps is called an
algorithm.
Every detail, including obvious steps, should
appear in the algorithm.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
Algorithm can be defined as:

“A sequence of activities to be processed for

getting desired output from a given input.”

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
3. Choose the interface: Select the objects.
 Determine how the input will be obtained and
how the output will be displayed. Then create
appropriate commands to allow the user to
control the program.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
4. Code: Translate the algorithm into a
programming language.
 Coding is the technical word for writing the
program.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
5. Test and debug: Locate and remove any
errors in the program.
 Testing is the process of finding errors in a
program (Trace the errors …), and
 Debugging is the process of correcting errors
that are found. (An error in a program is called
a bug.) (Fix the errors …)

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
Types of Errors
Syntax Errors: Violation of syntactic rules in
a Programming Language generates syntax
errors.
Effect? Interpreter or Compiler finds it in
Syntax Check Phase.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
Types of Errors
Semantic Errors: Doing logical mistakes
causes semantic errors in Source code.
Effect? Interpreters and Compilers can not
notice them, but on execution, they causes
unexpected results.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
Types of Errors
Run-time Errors: Occur on program
execution. Mostly caused by invalid data entry
or tries to use not existing resources.
Effect? It occurs on run time and may crash
the program execution.

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2.1. What is an algorithm?
Program Development Cycle
6. Complete the documentation: Organize all
the material that describes the program.
 Documentation is intended to allow another
person, or the programmer at a later date, to
understand (and modify) the program.

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1.2. Writing algorithms

Programming Tools: are used to convert

algorithms into computer programs:
A) Pseudocode: An informal high-level
description of the operating principle of a
computer program.
 It uses the structural conventions of a
programming language, but is intended for
human reading rather than machine reading.

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1.2. Writing algorithms

B) Flowcharts: Graphically depict the logical

steps to carry out a task and show how the steps
relate to each other.

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1.2. Writing Algorithms

Pseudocode Flowchart
Artificialand Informal • A graphical way of
language writing pseudocode
 Helps programmers to • Rounded rectangle -
plan an algorithm terminal
 Similar to everyday
• Parallelogram-input /
output
English
• Rectangle - actions
 Not an actual
• Diamonds - decision
programming language /conditional
• Circles - connector
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1.2. Writing Algorithms
Flowchart Symbols

Oval Used to connect multiple flows in a

flowchart.

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1.3. Translation

Once an algorithm is defined for a problem,

the programmer needs to translate it to its
equivalent representation using pseudocode or
flowchart.

Easierto translate this representation to a

programming language construct.

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1.3. Translation

Example:
Write an algorithm that receives two numbers
from an input device and returns their sum.
Translate the algorithm to a pseudocode and a
flowchart.

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1.3. Translation

Algorithm:
Begin
Step 1: Receive two integers
Step 2: Calculate their sum
Step 3: Display sum
End

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1.3. Translation
Pseudocode Flowchart
Start
Read A, B
Calculate C=A+B
Display C
Stop

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1.3. Translation

The C++ code …

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
float A, B, C;
cin>>A,B;
C=A+B;
cout<<C;
return 0;
}

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1.3. Translation
Variations in Structures of a program
Bohm Corrado and Guiseppe Jacopini
(inventors of Structured programming)
demonstrated that any computer program can be
written with just three structures:
◦ Sequences,
◦ Decisions, and
◦ Loops

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1.3. Translation

Sequences: one
command is
executed after
previous one.

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1.3. Translation

Decisions (selections): Statement(s) is (are)

executed if certain condition gives TRUE or
FALSE value.

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1.3. Translation

Three types of Decision Structures

◦ IF Structure

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1.3. Translation

◦ IF … ELSE Structure

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1.3. Translation

◦ Switch Structure

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1.3. Translation

Loops (repetition): Statement(s) is (are)

executed repeatedly until certain condition
gives TRUE or FALSE value.

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1.3. Translation

Three kinds of repetition structures

◦ While

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1.3. Translation

Three kinds of repetition structures

◦ Do … While

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1.3. Translation

Three kinds of repetition structures

◦ For statement

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1.3. Translation

Pseudocode and Flowchart for a Decision

Structure For statement

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1.3. Translation

Example:
 Write an algorithm that receives two non-equal
numbers and outputs the maximum.

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1.3. Translation

Pseudocode

Start
Read A, B
Max = A
If (B > A)
Max = B
Display Max
Stop

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1.3. Translation

Example:
 Write an algorithm to determine a student’s
average grade and indicate whether he is
successful or not.
 The average grade is calculated as the average
of mid-term and final marks.
 Student will be successful if his average grade
is grater or equals to 60.

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1.3. Translation
Pseudocode
Start
Use variables mid term, final and average
Input mid term and final
Calculate the average by summing mid term and final
and dividing by 2
If average is below 60
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “SUCCESS”
Stop
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1.3. Translation
Pseudocode (Detailed/Simplified!)
Start
Input mid-term and final
Average = (mid-term + final)/2
If (average < 60) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “SUCCESS”
Endif
Stop

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1.3. Translation
Flowchart

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1.3. Translation
Pseudocode and Flowchart for a Loop

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1.3. Translation
Example:
Write an algorithm which calculates the average exam
grade for a class of 5 students.

What are the program inputs?

• The exam grades
Processing:
 Find the sum of the grades;
 Count the number of students; (counter
controlled);
 Calculate average grade = sum of grades /
number of students.
What is the program output?
 The average exam grade
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1.3. Translation
Pseudocode

Start
Use variables total, counter, grade, average
Initialize total = 0
Initialize counter = 1
While (counter <= 5)
Input grade
Calculate total = total + grade
Calculate counter = counter + 1
End-while
Calculate average = total / 5
Display average
Stop
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 1.3. Translation
Flowchart

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1.3. Translation
Reading assignment …

Properties of algorithms
• Finiteness
• Definiteness
• Input
• Output
• Effectiveness

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1.4. Data Structures
There are often many approaches to solving a
problem. How do we choose
between them?
At the heart of computer program design are
two goals:
 To design an algorithm that is easy to
understand, code, and debug.
 To design an algorithm that makes efficient
use of the computer’s resources.

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1.4. Data Structures
Data structure is the structural representation
of logical relationships between elements of
data.

Aggregation of atomic and composite data

into a set with defined relationships.

Structure refers to a set of rules that hold the

data together.

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1.4. Data Structures

Data structure …
 mainly specifies the structured
organization of data, by providing accessing
methods with correct degree of
associatively.
 affects the design of both the structural and
functional aspects of a program.

Algorithm + Data Structure = Program

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1.4. Data Structures

Example

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1.4. Data Structures

Role of Data Structure …

Data structures organize data

 more efficient programs.
More powerful computers
 more complex applications.
More complex applications demand more
calculations.
Complex computing tasks are unlike our
everyday experience.
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1.4. Data Structures

Any organization for a collection of records

can be searched, processed in any order, or
modified.

The choice of data structure and algorithm

can make the difference between a program
running in a few seconds or many days.

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1.4. Data Structures

Efficiency

A solution is said to be efficient if it solves

the problem within its resource constraints.
• Space
• Time
The cost of a solution is the amount of
resources that the solution consumes.

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1.4. Data Structures

Selecting a Data Structure

Select a data structure as follows:

1) Analyze the problem to determine the
basic operations that must be supported.
2) Quantify the resource constraints for each
operation.
3) Select the data structure that best meets
these requirements.

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1.4. Data Structures

Cost and Benefit

Each data structure has costs and benefits.
Rarely is one data structure better than
another in all situations.
Any data structure requires:
• space for each data item it stores,
• time to perform each basic operation,
• programming effort.

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CYP

1) What is an algorithm?
2) Explain the need for writing an algorithm?
3) What are the benefits of developing
flowchart/pseudocode?
4) Discuss decision structure and looping.
5) What is Data Structure?
6) Explain the role of data structures in
programming.

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Problems

Prepare an algorithm, Pseudocode and

Flowchart.

1) Find average age of a group of 10 players

2) Calculate the area of a circle.
3) Convert temperature from Fahrenheit to
Celsius.
4) Find the largest value of any three numbers.
5) Calculate even numbers between 0 and 99.

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Problems

6) Calculate the factorial of an integer n.

7) Generate the first 50 items of the Fibonacci
series.
8) Read the coefficients of a quadratic equation
and decide the solution/s if any.

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Next …

Chapter 3: Programming Constructs

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