Forest Protection Module

 Main parts of the Module

 The Forest Protection Module is divided into three
parts namely:
oForest Fire Management
o Pests
oDiseases
 Mr. Selestine Mafuru will teach you about Forest
Fire Management
 Ms. Msangi will teach you about Forest Diseases
 Ms. Chanai Amwene will teach you about Forest Pests
 Forest Protection Module
 Mode of Assessment from the combine Module
• 3 Individual Assignments 1 from each part
• 2 Tests one for Fire Management and combine test covering Forest Pests
and Diseases
• 2 Practical Test one for Fire Management and combine test covering Forest
Pests and Diseases
 Fire Management Course Outlines
 Chapter One: The Fire Triangle
• Chapter Two: The Fire Environment & Factors Influencing Fire
Behaviors
• Chapter Three: The Forest Fire Regimes and Fire Village History
 Fire Management Course Outlines …
• Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge, Practices and
Customary Norms on Uses of Fire
Chapter Five: Causes of Irresponsible (Unwanted ) Forest Fires
• Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan (FiMP)
namely:
i. Fire Prevention Plan
ii. Fire Protection Plan
iii. Fire Suppression Plan
o Introduction to Integrated Fire Management (IFM)
 Fire Management Outlines….
Chapter Seven: Safety on the Fireline
• Chapter Eight: Village Fire Management Institutions (VFMIs)
• Chapter Nine: Fire Risk & forest hazards isolation strategies
• Chapter Ten: Introduction to Fire Danger Index (FDI & Fire Danger
Rating (FDR)
• Chapter Eleven: Fire Suppression Tools and Equipment
 Chapter One: The Concept of Fire Triangle
 Fire is defined as a rapid, long-lasting chemical reaction that releases heat
and light from fuels and is accompanied by flame. The visible portion of the
fire is composed of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen. A fire
requires three components: fuel, heat, and oxygen. A chemical chain
reaction occurs in the presence of all three elements namely fuel, oxygen
and heat, resulting in a fire. The fire will go out if any of those elements are
removed.
 The Fire Triangle
o The fire Triangle is a simple way of understanding the components of fire.
Each side of the triangle represents one of three components needed to have
a fire. Fire is a chemical reaction, without one of these components, a fire
cannot exist or be sustained.
 Chapter One: The Concept of Fire Triangle

During firefighting, fire crews are trying to remove one of the three
components by using different fire suppression tools and equipment as will
be covered in the last chapter
 Chapter One: The Concept of Fire Triangle …
 During fire events that occurred at Matembwi village, Njombe DC the First
fire crew arrived at the fireplace with fire beaters, the Second fire crew
arrived at the fireplace with knapsack sprayers (water pumps) and the Third
fire crew arrived at the fireplace with rake- hoes. Regarding the above
background information, discuss the following questions:
i. Which fire crew aimed at starving the fire? Give reasons
ii. Which fire crew aimed ta suffocating the fire? Give reasons
iii. Which fire crew aimed at cooling the fire ? Give reasons
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors
Influencing Fire Behaviors .
 The fire environment is a landscape into which, a fire happen. A fire cannot
happen in the atmosphere. It should therefore happen in a given place and at
a specific time. Therefore, a real physical place where the fire happen is
known as a fire environment.
 Fire behavior
o Fire behavior is defined as the way fuels ignite, the speed at which they
spread, their intensity, flame height, and their potential to cause spot fires
ahead of the fire front. The following fire behavior parameters explain the
visual characteristics of a fire:
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …
 Ignition of fuels: Fuels must be preheated before they can be ignited. During
the preheating stage of combustion, flammable gasses are released from
fuels. These flammable gasses can be ignited by a spark or sufficient heat.
Once ignited, the fire will continue to burn until the fuel is consumed, or an
intervention occurs that breaks the fire triangle (i.e. one of the three fire
elements is removed). The ease of ignition depends on the properties of the
fuel as will be explained later.
 Rate of spread (RoS): The rate of spread (RoS) refers to the horizontal
distance that a fire moves within a particular time frame (distance per minute
or hour). The RoS is measured at the head of the fire, where the spread is
greatest.
 Chapter Two: The fire environment and factors ...
 Fire intensity: Fire intensity is the speed at which heat energy (measured in
kilojoules) is released from fuel as it burns over a certain area and time. In
simple terms, this means that fire intensity refers to how hot a fire is burning.
 Flame height: Flame height is measured from the flame’s base to the flame’s
highest point. The length of the flame is measured from its base to its tip.
 Once a fire has started in a given area, its burning behaviors will normally be
influenced by three important factors namely weather, fuel and topography.
o These three factors which influence fire behaviors are sometimes known as
the Wildland fire triangle. Therefore, care must be taken not to confuse
between fire triangle Vs Wildland fire triangle!
 Chapter Two: The fire environment and factors ...
A: How Weather Elements Influence Forest Fire Behaviors
 Weather, fuel and topography all influence fire behaviors differently. Among
the three factors, the most dangerous one which is likely to make the fire
behaviors to be unstoppable (erratic) is weather. Weather has three main
elements which are likely to make the fire to be fatal (deadly one). These
weather elements are Temperature (T), Relative Humidity (RH) and Wind
(W).
 Each weather element influences forest fire behaviors differently as
explained below:
i. Wind: Wind is the most dangerous factor than all factors to be discussed
under Chapter Two which is likely to make the forest fire to be unstoppable.
 Wind could influence the fire behaviors in three different ways as follows:
 Chapter Two: The fire environment and factors …
o Increasing fire speed: The more the wind speed, the higher the speed of
burning fire
o Production of spot fires: Small fires which are through ahead by the big fire
o Enabling the fire to change directions: If the fire changes its original
direction, normally it becomes very fatal to fire fighting crews and the
surrounding physical (houses; cars) and natural (plantations and woodlots
assets
ii. Temperature & RH: Temperature influences heavily two parameters namely
RH and dryness of burning fuel. The higher the temperature the less the RH
and the more the drying of fuel materials and hence, the more the fire
intensity.
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …
 Since weather is the only main factor which influences fire behaviors badly,
it is therefore advised that never try to fight any fire without understanding
the weather of that particular fire environment.
 Therefore, one may conclude that, the relationship between RH and
Temperature is inversely proportion. If the Temperature increases, it will
reduce RH; and thus, the air will become drier. When the temperature
decreases, the air will become wetter, therefore the RH will increase
• On the basis, of T, RH and Wind speed that is why farmers who use fire for
farms preparation by burning farm debris and other wood materials normally
set fires during the late evening expecting that the RH will be relatively
higher while T and Wind speed will be relatively low. Under such good
arrangements, automatically the fire to be started for farm preparation will
be relatively small and more likely, manageable
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …
 Some farmers in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania particularly in Kilolo,
Mufindi, Makete and Madaba district use fire as a tool for farm preparations.
They however, normally set fires in their farms either in the late evening or
tonight. Explain briefly if their traditional practices on using fire supports the
principles governing the wise use of fire.
 One therefore, may conclude that farmers perhaps know better the Science and
application of fire than some of us in NTA Level 5. Wondaful.
B: How fuel load and characteristics influences fire behaviors
 The fuel characteristics determine the intensity and speed of a fire. It is
essential to consider both the fuel that is currently burning and any unburned
fuel when planning a burn or fighting a fire. This is important because if a fire
spreads into an adjacent area, knowing the fuel characteristics in that area will
help fire managers predict fire behavior and plan suppression strategies and
tactics in case the fire spreads.
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …
 Fuel like other factors also influences fire behaviors although not as much as of
weather.
 Fuel characteristics in the forest are not the same. Therefore, fuel influences fire
behaviors differently depending with fuel characteristics. The important seven fuel
characteristics which are likely to influence fire behaviors are
i. Fuel size & shape : Fuels are classified into different classes based on their
diameter sizes. The thinner the fuel is, the easier it is to ignite. If the greater
proportion of fuels is thin and small, then it is easier for a fire to ignite and
spread.
ii. ii. Fuel compactions: : Fuel compactness describes how closely packed fuel
particles (materials) are. More compacted fuel loads have less space between fuel
particles, which reduces oxygen and heat exposure for these fuels. Therefore,
high fuel loads that are compacted pose a lower fire risk compared to the same
fuels that are loosely stacked and allow air to flow freely between fuel particles.
 Chapter Two: The fire environment and factors ...
iii. Fuel chemical contents: Some plants, even if they look green and alive,
burn easily when heated because they contain chemicals that can become
volatile gasses.
vi. Fuel vertical and horizontal continuity : The presence of either vertical or
horizontal continuity mean that fuel materials are available and that the fire
will continue burning. If for example, fuel materials are not in a continuity
arranged it means that once the fire reaches a place where there would be no
fuel materials, automatically it will stop.
v. Fuel moisture content: Moisture content of the fuel materials is the main
factor which will determines how the fuel will burn. The higher the moisture
content of the burning materials the lesser the flammability and vice verse
hold true.
vi. Fuel Temperature: The higher the temperature the more the dryness of the
fuel materials and hence the high the fire intensity.
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …

vii. Fuel load: The fuel load is determined by the weight of fuels in a given
area. The weight of fuel is expressed in kilograms or tons per hectare. A fire
cannot burn if there are insufficient flammable fuels to carry it.
 Fuel classification: Fuel can be classified into three groups as ground,
surface, and aerial fuels. Ground fuels are dry roots below the ground
surface. Surface fuels refer to those fuels between the surface and about
man-height. Fuels higher than man-height are classified as aerial fuels.
 Have you heard about the ground fire? If yes, the ground fuel is the basis of
ground fire!
 Chapter Two: The Fire Environment and Factors …
 Among the three factors which influence fire behavior, fuel is is the only
factor which can be modified by human being. The rest factors namely
weather and topography are God given situations of which, we human being
have no control over them. Fuel arrangements to make them less
combustible will be discussed later.
 Ways of modifying fuel characteristics to become less combustible
o From the early beginning we agreed that fuel is among the three factors
which influence fire behaviors. Now, let us discuss some ways of modifying
fuel characteristics to become less combustible as follows:
i. Fuel compaction
ii. Fuel vertical and horizontal discontinuity; and
iii. Fuel moistening
 Chapter Two: The fire environment and factors …
C: How Topography : Collectively including slope, aspect, elevation, and
topographic features influence fire behaviors into two ways as follows:
i. Fire moves more quickly uphill than downhill or than on flat terrain.
Topography describes land shape. This normally happen because the fuel
tend to be closer to the faster moving fire flames. Also the uphill moving
fires creates preheating effects to the uphill fuel load.
ii. Topography also can affect how the fuel materials will receive the sun
radiations and hence, affect dryness of the fuel materials. For example, the
windward side of the slope normally experiences high rainfall than the
leeward sides. Therefore, the levels of dryness of the same fuel materials
could be affected by the slope and hence its burning intensity.
 Chapter Three : Forest Fire Regimes and Fires History
 A fire regime is the term given to the general patterns in which fires naturally
occur in a particularly ecosystems be it in a plantation forests or natural forests
over an extended period of time. Fire Managers like you normally classify fire
regimes using a combination of factors including fire : Frequency, intensity ,
size, patterns, season and severity.
 Village leaders therefore, are required to keep village data/history on the above
mentioned parameters each year. It is important to keep fire regimes data
because at the end of the day , the collected data could assist Fire Managers like
you to give estimates to weather or not the village is in a fire risk zone. Issues of
fire risks and fire hazards isolation will be covered in separate chapters.
 However, collecting and keeping fire data is a main challenging issue in
Tanzania. Even at a plantation level, it might become difficult to get fire regime
data for the past five years.
Chapter Three : Forest Fire Regimes and Fires History
Years Fire Regimes Parameters

2023 Total Fire Frequencies Fire Ssizes Sseasonality Severity Intensity Patterns

2022

2021

2020

2019
 Chapter Three : Forest Fire Regimes and Fires History
 Normally, when keeping fire regime data, due to inadequate human
capacity most of us tend to concentrate on the first three parameters only
namely total fire Frequencies, total sizes of the burn area at the and of the
fire seasons and when (months) exactly the fire happened during the fire
seasons.
 The rest three parameters namely fire patterns, intensity and severity are
normally based on institutional memories of elders. During recalling these
parameters from the village elders you are likely to hear good words like “
the situation in the village was very worse or it was a deadly fire”
 A forest fire is like an elephant in a room. On the basis of this common
sayings, it is important for whoever is responsible on forest fire
management to keep important fire regimes data for better planning of fire
prevention, protection and suppression strategies.
Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge, Practices and
Customary Norms on Uses of Fire
 Fire had been used and will continues to be used by mankind for million
years to come.
 We may therefore, categorically conclude that fire is a Good Servant
(helper) for mankind. On the other side however, a fire can also become a
Bad Master if and only if mishandled.
 Fire is a very good intervention that has helped and continue to help
mankind but many people say that it is also a Bad Master .
 Although man is given the brain to handle fire and other problems at ease,
but man often forgets to protect it at all cost. Fire has a good in itself but
may continues to damage our belongings when mishandled.
 Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge,
Practices …
 In short, fire is a good servant (helper) because it helps us to:
o Cook varieties of food
o Warm ourselves during winter time
o Scaring away dangerous animals tonight
o Farm preparations
o Improving of pastures for domesticated and wild animals
o Elimination of pests in rangelands
o Breaking of seed dormancies in miombo forest ; and
o Allows natural regeneration of fire adaptive species miombo tree species
o
Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge, Practices …
 On the other hand, fire also could become a bad master because:
o It can easily spread in forests and houses and burn all valuable physical
assets to ashes
o It can destroy important habitat and habitat resources needed for
beekeeping pollination activities
o It can harm or kills human beings
o It can destroy plantations forests and woodlots owned by local
communities, government and private sector.
o It can destroy ecosystems and kills slow moving animals and insects
o It can pollute the air through addition of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
 Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge, Practices …
 Some common indigenous practices and norms on using fire without
causing harm to other physical and natural assets include:
o Slashing of debris, piling and burn commonly adopted by Sukuma tribe
under Wananzengo (Wananchi) norms. Since fire is being set to each pile in
the farm, it is difficult for the fire to escape and bring harm to other people’s
property.
o Restrictions posed by Village Fire Chiefs (VFCs) under traditional norms to
start uncontrolled fire during fire seasons.
o Use of fire as tool for burning piles of debris cleared from the farm during
late evening .
o Collective responsibilities of all Wananzego (community) in fighting any
emerging unwanted forest fires
 Chapter Four: The Indigenous Knowledge, Practices
o Experiences from different places show that fire management under
indigenous practices is highly respected by all members of the community
because whoever are found guilty on misusing fire are fined heavily by the
Village Elders.
o Conclusively therefore, we may say that in order for fire to continuously
become a Good Servant for mankind, the community is forced to obey both
the indigenous norms and any other formulated bylaws for fire prevention.
 Chapter Five: Causes of Unmandated forest Fires
 About 98% of the occurring forest fires in Tanzania are caused by human
being when using fire irresponsibly.
 Perhaps, in this study we should be using the word irresponsible forest
fires rather than using the old phrase of unwanted forest fires.
 Causes of irresponsible forest fires are many and all of them are well
known to you. Just to mention them includes:
o Arsonist (people who enjoys to see bushes being burnt)
o cigarette smokers
o charcoal burners
o Brick burners
 Chapter Five: Causes of Unmandated forest Fires
o Animal hunters who use fire to chase animals inside their nets
o Bee hunters who use fire to harvest honey
o Farm preparations: This is main sources of fire in the Southern Highlands
o Escaping fire during firebreak preparations
o Fish smoking meaning that drying fishes by using fire
o Picnic camps
o Cooking food in temporary shelters during farm preparation
o Fire escaping from pit sawyers
 Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan
(FiMP)
 Fire Management Plan (FiMP) is a document or guideline which explain
clearly specific activities to be done before and during fire season in order to
ensure that forest fire is effectively managed.
 FiMP therefore, shows specific activities to be conducted by forest
plantation and woodlots owners and the adjacent local communities.
 It is very important for the FiMP to specify activities to be done by the
adjacent local communities because most of the irresponsible fires which
advance into forest plantations and woodlots are coming from the adjacent
local communities when doing their fire related activities. Causes of forest
fires well discussed in Chapter Five.
 Chapter Six: Introduction to Fire Management Plan –
 FiMP …
Fire Action Plan : A fire Action Plan is a simple tool which is obtained from the
general FiMP. FAP is prepared in order to implement the FiMP. Any Action Plan
should show:
o What should be done (Activities)
o How will it be done (Method of doing the activity)
o Performance indicators (How will you know that you have got what you
wanted?)
o Who will do it (Implementers )
o When (Time for implementation)
o Budget (Resources needed)
 We may therefore conclude that a Fire Action Plan has SIX Columns and Several
Rows depending on the nature of outputs to be achieved.
 Chapter Six: Introduction to Fire Management Plan –
FiMP …
 Introduction to Integrated Fire Management (IFM)
o Integrated Fire Management (IFM) is a friendly forest fire management
approach which includes all key stakeholders in the fire management. It
mainly aim at maximizing beneficial uses of fire as we discussed them in
Chapter Four and at the same time, it also aim at reduced the negative
consequences of irresponsible forest fires on the ecosystems and
community livelihoods (forest plantations and woodlots).
o Despite the fact that IFM has Five Blocks namely fire prevention, protection,
suppression , rehabilitation and Monitoring and reporting . But under field
conditions we normally deal with the first Three Blocks only.
 Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan
(FIMP…
 Field based Three Blocks of IFM are:
i. Fire Prevention Plan
ii. Fire Protection Plan
iii. Fire Suppression Plan
 Each Block has very specific field activities to be conducted before and
during fire seasons as follows:
A: Fire Prevention Plan: Under fire prevention plan forest plantations and
woodlots owners as well as the adjacent local community are supposed to
perform different field activities to ensure that fire will not start during the
fire seasons.
o There are Three Main activities which are conducted under Fire Prevention
Plan namely:
 Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan
i. Community awareness: Through using varies means and techniques
including cinema shows, village meetings, signboards, school clubs and
village sports and games.
ii. Fire prevention bylaws enforcement: Through making sure that any
person who violet fire prevention bylaws or norms are fined accordingly.
iii. Hazards isolation strategies: Through making wide firebreaks aiming at
reducing fire speed or stopping it when it occurs during the dry seasons
B: Fire Protection Plan : Under fire protection plan are two main activities as
follows:
iv. Providing firefighting crew with necessary tools and equipment for
protecting them against strong fire radiations when fighting the fire. These
tools are known Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
 Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan …
ii. Hazards isolation strategies: Through putting wide firebreaks aiming at
protecting important community infrastructures such as schools, hospitals or
seed orchards. Normally wide firebreaks are prepared while expecting that
probably uncontrolled fire will come during the dry fire seasons.
C: Fire Suppression Plan: Fire suppression Plan include high level of community
preparedness in ensuring that once fire is detected will be suppressed
immediate while it is still in its infants stage. Effective fire suppression goes
through the following Eight sequentially stages as follows:
o Standby of fire crew during fire seasons
o Fire detection and communication
o Resources mobilization and advancement to the fire place
o Making initial fire attack
Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan …
o Containing the fire
o Putting fireline to separate the burnt and unburnt areas
o Making mop - up by using knapsack sprayers and hand hoes aiming at making
sure that the fire is completely dead.
o Patrolling and guarding the burn areas for some days.
 Chapter Six : Introduction to Fire Management Plan …
 In village areas, fire can be detected by using five ways as follows:
o Through by passers
o Through Standby fire crew
o Through fire lookout towers
o Through satellites and computers based technologies
o Through aircraft
 Again in village areas, fire could be communicate to the entire village
members through different tradition technologies including:
o Blowing of horns
o Drums
o Fire alarms