CHAPTER 5

FORM 4
Cell Division
 Mitosis
Necessity for production of new cells in living organisms
 Cells continuously dividing, growing, dying. Dead cells need to
be replaced with new cells. Organism grow, change through
cell division.
 Cell division – cells grow, divide, replace dead (existing)
cells.
 Nuclear division – mitosis, mitotic cell division, followed by
Cytokinesis – cytoplasmic division.

 Plants – occurs in meristematic tissues of root tips & bud

tips, allow growth, elongation of plant.
 Animals – occurs in every part of body, Eg; skin produce new
skin cells replace dead skin cells.
 Significance of Mitosis
 Process of nuclear division results in formation of 2 genetically
identical daughter cells (all cells have same gene).
 Replace dead cells. Eg; skin cells live only 2 weeks.
 Repair, replace, regenerate damaged cells. Eg; liver cells
regenerate following an injury.
 Basis of asexual reproduction. Eg; unicellular organism,
Amoeba sp. Produce genetically identical to parent cell – Binary
fission.
 Increases number of cells, allow growth & development. Eg;
multicellular organism, zygote divides & grows eventually
complete organism.
 2 daughter cells genetically identical to each other and to that of
parent cell. Nucleus contain same number of chromosomes,
same gene as parent cell.
 Chromosome & Number
Cells divide – Somatic cells & Reproductive cells or gametes.
Somatic cells – all cells except for reproductive cells.
Reproductive cells – formed through Meiosis.
Every cell has chromosome (thread-like structures in Nucleus).
Chromosomal number - number of chromosome (in nucleus) of
each species of an individual is constant.
Individuals of same species have same number, but different
species have a different number. Eg; onions have 16 chromosomes,
fruit fly, 8 chromosomes.
Chromosomal number – diploid, in pair in nucleus, = 2n. Eg; 16.
Gametes – contain half of number, haploid = n. Eg; 8.
Human – Somatic cells have 46 chromosomes, gamete has 23. 2
sets = Parental & Maternal origin = Homologous chromosomes, a
member = Homologue, carry genes for trait (Eg; eye color) at same
location. 22 pairs = Autosomes, 1 pair = Sex chromosomes
Diploid cells = 2 sets, 46, Haploid cells = 1 set, 23.
Human Male Karyotype Human Female Karyotype Human cells =
 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46 total)
 Diploid number of
chromosomes
 1 member of a pair
donated from Mother,
the other one from
Father.
 22pairs =
AUTOSOMES
 1 pair = SEX
CHROMOSOMES
(determines Gender).
SEX CHROMOSOMES SEX CHROMOSOMES
AUTOSOMES
AUTOSOMES
smaller

Karyotype = a picture of a person's

chromosomes (a display of
chromosomes). Chromosomes are
stained, and examined under the
microscope.
 Mitosis maintains chromosomal number

 Daughter cell has same genetic information (gene, DNA)

inherited from parent cell. Gene is carried in chromosome.
Contains same chromosomal number & genetic information as
parent cell.

 DNA – double helix contains genes.

 Gene – in chromosome, unit of heritance, must be passed down

to its offspring.

 Mitosis doubles number of cells without changing genetic content

of cell.
 Chromosome – consists of DNA double helix & protein.
 Chromatin – when it is not condensed, visible as thread-like.
 DNA – carries gene inherit from parents.
 S phase – DNA replicates, form 2 identical DNA, duplicated
chromosome with 2 sister chromatids contains DNA identical
copies.
 Mitosis – 2 sister chromatids separate, become daughter
chromosomes.
 When cell division begins, chromatin becomes condensed, coiled &
folded, compact, thick, easily seen under microscope, attached at
centromere.
 Cell cycle
 Cell cycle extends from the time a new cell is produced until time the
cell completes a division. 2 major phases:
a) Interphase (G1, S, G2 stage).
b) Mitotic cell division or M phase (Mitosis)

Interphase
 Accounts for 90% of cell cycle.
 Cells grow larger, prepare for cell division (mitosis).
 Nucleus is big, well defined.
 Chromatin – not condensed, visible.
 Centrosomes form in cytoplasm. Each centrosome consists of a
pair of centrioles. Migrate towards opposite poles of cell, formation
of spindle fibres.
 Divided into 3 stages:
a) G1 phase (gap or growth phase 1)
b) S phase (DNA synthesis)
c) G2 phase (gap or growth phase 2)
 INTERPHAS
E
G1 stage
• Synthesis materials required for cell division –
Protein & new organelles.
• High Metabolic rate.
• Cells decide, whether or not to divide, complete
cycle to form new cells. If external conditions
conducive for growth, then cell enter S phase.
•Chromosomes are fine, not visible –
Chromatin.

S stage
• DNA synthesis (gene), Replication.
• Duplicated chromosome consists of 2 identical
sister chromatids, same DNA.
M phase (MITOSIS)
CELL DIVISION
G2 stage
• Cell continues to grow, remain active.
• Enzymes, proteins are synthesized.
• Cell accumulates energy, complete final
preparations for division.
 Mitosis

 M phase can be divided into 2 major parts:

a) Mitosis
b) Cytokinesis

Has 4 phases :
PROPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE, TELOPHASE
 1) PROPHASE
1) 2n  Chromosomes condense,
tightly coiled, shorter, thicker,
visible under microscope.
 Joined at centromere, 2 sister
chromatids.
 Spindle fibre forms.
2)  Centrioles (centrosomes)
migrate to poles.
 Spindle fibre attaches to
centromeres.
 Nucleolus & nuclear
3) membrane disappears.
3) ANAPHASE
 2 sister chromatids separate
at centromere. Pulled
4) 2n apart to opposite poles,
shortening of spindle
fibres.
 When separated = daughter
chromosomes, reach poles.
 Each pole has a set of a
complete & identical
chromosomes as parent cell
Appears in PAIRS
2n= Diploid
2) METAPHASE
 Chromosomes with 2 sister
chromatids, are lined up ,
arranged randomly at the
metaphase (equator) plate.
 Spindle fibre fully formed.
 Each duplicated chromosome
(sister chromatids) are attached
to spindle fibre.
4) TELOPHASE
 Chromosomes start uncoil,
become chromatin again.
 Spindle fibre disappears.
 Nucleolus & nuclear
membrane reforms.
CYTOKINESIS
 Division of cytoplasm
form 2 daughter cells,
having nucleus by the
action of cleavage
furrow pinches at the
equator of cell.
 Importance of controlled Mitosis
Cells must divide in a controlled, orderly manner, distribute exact
copy of each of chromosome to new cells.
Because gene carried by chromosomes is necessary for proper
functioning of organism.
Mitosis ensure gene content & number chromosomes in parent
cells are maintained in daughter cells from one generation to next.
Rate & timing of cell division is important for normal cell growth,
development & maintenance.
Different cells divide at different frequencies, Eg; human skin cells
divide throughout lifespan while liver cells only divide when necessary
to replace damaged or injured tissue.
Each cell has system consist of specific proteins control & phases in
cell cycle.
Control system – ensure cell division is complete & cell divides in a
controlled manner. Certain genes are involved in protein synthesis,
replication in S phase.
 Effects of uncontrolled Mitosis
When cells divide repeatedly, without control, regulation, produce
cancer cells.
Cancer –
 Disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis, due to severe disruption
to mechanism controls cell cycle.
 Divide freely, uncontrollably.
 Compete with surrounding normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrients &
energy for their own growth.
 Cancel cell that is not destroyed will divide uncontrollably to form
Tumour = abnormal mass of cells.
 Intrude & spread to other tissues, lead to malfunction of tissues,
ultimately death.
 Caused by factors:
 Damage to DNA
 Gene mutation that control cell division
 Ionising radiation Eg; X-rays, UV, Gamma ray
 Chemical compounds – Tar, tobacco smoke
 Carcinogenic compounds - formaldehyde
 Normal cells
Controlled growth
Single organized layer
Cells are differentiated, carry out
specialized functions
Nuclei & number of chromosomes
are normal
Cancer cells
Uncontrolled growth
Multi-layered & disorganized
Cells are undifferentiated, not have
specialized functions
Nuclei & number of chromosomes
are abnormal
 Application of mitosis
Cloning – process producing clones or genetically identical
copies of a cell, tissue or an organism through asexual
reproduction not through fusion of gametes. Produce organism with
same genetic content & chromosomal number as parent.
Animal cloning – transfer of nucleus from a somatic cell to an
ovum or embryonic cell with nucleus removed.
A sheep named Dolly, one of the successful clones in 1996.
Somatic cells Unfertilized egg Electric pulse
(mammary gland cells) (ovum) cell is obtained. stimulates fusion
are removed & grown The nucleus is between somatic cell
in low culture medium. removed, leave + denucleated egg.
cytoplasm & organelles.

Embryo is implanted
Dolly, the cloned into a surrogate Cell divides
sheep of somatic mother (same breed repeatedly forming an
cell donor is born. of sheep as the ovum embryo
donor sheep)
Dolly
first mammal to have been successfully
cloned from an adult cell.
 Application of mitosis
Tissue culture technique – plant & animal cells can be extracted &
cultured in a nutrient medium outside organisms. Involves cells or
tissues growth outside organisms in a suitable culture medium
contains nutrients & growth hormones (in vitro – in glasses methods)
conducted outside body of organism, in test tube, conical flasks.
Main purpose to produce plant & animal cells through asexual
reproduction. Each cell has full genetic potential to form all parts of a
mature organism. A single plant develop to become a complete plant.
Different parts of plant can be cultured Eg; shoots, meristemic tissues,
leaves, roots, seeds, embryos. Begin to divide by
Small pieces of plants’ Explants or protoplast are mitosis, produce
leaf, shoot, stem etc. sterilized, placed in glass aggregates of cells
are cut out = container contains **nutrient, into Callus –
Explants. culture medium (glucose, undifferentiated mass
Alternatively, Enzymes amino acids, minerals etc) for of tissue.
used to digest cell tissue growth, **sterile Callus Embryo
walls of tissues condition, free from Embryo Plantlet,
(mesophyll) results in microorganisms that may transfer to soil, grow
naked cells without cell contaminate tissue culture, as adult, Genetic
walls = Protoplasts. **optimum pH & temperature.. identical
Thousands of new young plants or cloned plants with desirable
characteristics & traits Eg; strong resistance towards diseases can
be produced from somatic cells taken from parent plant. All have same
gene, characteristics, as parent plant. Large number of identical plants
can be produced for commercial purposes.

Genetic engineering, genes of a plant can be altered, engineered to

produce higher yields.

Transgenic plants carry a foreign gene has been introduced into

their genetic constitution so possess new & different traits.
Improved food quality. Eg; soya, wheat, cotton, resistant to
herbicides, pests, diseases.
 Advantages of Cloning

Multiply copies of useful genes or clones.

 E. coli has been genetically manipulated to produce growth
hormones. Synthesize large amount of hormone, injected into cows
to increase milk quality.

Shorter time in larger numbers of clones.

• E. coli is cloned to produce insulin (produced by pancreas, lowers
blood glucose concentration, convert glucose to glycogen) especially
for diabetes mellitus patients, needs constant supply.
• Last time, it was obtained from animals, needs to purify, costly, not
enough amount to meet demand.
• Gene codes for insulin production inserted into E. coli’s genome,
multiply rapidly with the desired gene on large scale for
commercial purpose.
• Each clone contains that gene to synthesize insulin.
• Bacteria is lysed, insulin is extracted.
• Less expensive, Large quantities, readily available.
Plants reproduce from seeds take a long time to grow, produce fruits.
Cloned plants, can produce flowers & fruits within a shorter period. As
clones reach maturity in short period, less time & effort needed to
supervise them.

Transgenic crops Eg; wheat, soya bean, cotton are resistant to

herbicides, pests & diseases are created.
 Plants produce better quality yields, Eg; resistant to larvae, gene codes
a protein synthesis that kills larvae that feed on cotton plants.
 Delayed ripening in tomatoes, appears fresh & firm, longer shelf life.
 Thousands of plantlets with similar resistance to pests & diseases,
planting Genetically modified (GM) crops.

Involve vegetative reproduction does not need pollinating agents.

Propagation takes place any time.

Control or overcome environmental pollution, cutting down the cost &

time for cleaning. Eg; gene for lipase synthesis isolated from animals,
inserted into bacterial genome, create bacteria that can clean up oil
spills in ocean, break down toxic waste materials, help clean up toxic
waste dumps. Eg; bacteria removes sulphur from coal.
 Disadvantages of Cloning
Ethical & moral issues regarding cloning. Religious groups & organizations
questioned, strongly opposed it.
Long-term side effects of using genetically modified viruses & bacterial
clones in medicines, industries not yet known.
Long-term effects & safety aspects of releasing bacterial clones to
environment to solve problems related to environment such as pollution, not
yet known, organisms may mutate, become dangerous to environment &
organisms.
Clones do not show any genetic variations. Eg; plant clones have adapted
to current environment. If a drastic change in future, clones may be wiped out
entirely, unable to adapt anymore to the changes.
Clones have same level of resistance towards certain diseases. If new
disease or pest emerge, all clones may be eliminated, not resistant to new
ones.
New clones undergo natural mutations can endanger mankind &
environment, may disrupt natural equilibrium of ecosystem.
Contain genes resistant to herbicides. Genes may be transferred to
weeds through viruses, weeds could be resistant to herbicides too.
Cloned animals have a shorter lifespan. Research still find solution to
prolong it.
 Meiosis
Significance of Meiosis
Offspring to possess same chromosomal number as their parents,
reproductive organs that produce gametes must undergo meiosis –
half, haploid number.
Meiosis – process of nuclear division reduces number of
chromosomes in daughter cells to half that of parent cell. Produces
Gametes=Haploid cells = n. From 2n to n. Because contain half of
genetic material (gene), number of chromosomes of the Parent cells
= Diploid cells = 2n.
Gamete receives 1 chromosome from a pair of homologous
chromosomes. Contains 23 chromosomes = Haploid number of
chromosomes = n.
During sexual reproduction, Fertilization = fusion of 2 gametes (Sperm
+ Ovum) restores complete number of chromosomes & genetic
material (gene) forming diploid zygote = 46 chromosomes. Offspring
inherits traits from both parents to ensure a continuation of life.
 Process of Meiosis

 Meiosis contains 2 separate nuclear divisions:

a) Meiosis I – Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I.

b) Meiosis II – Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II.

 Begins with a single diploid parent cell. Produce 4 Haploid

cells, each has different genes, different from the others, and
from the parent cell.
 Undergoes Interphase too and DNA replicates once.
 Meiosis I
Meiosis 2 stages
Meiosis II CYTOKINESI
S

CYTOKINESIS
2n = DIPLOID = 46 chromosomes

INTERPHAS
E MEOISIS I

SAME LIKE MEOISIS

MITOSIS II
n = HAPLOID = 23 chromosomes

GAMETES
 2n 1) PROPHASE I 2) METAPHASE I
1)  Chromosomes condense, tightly  Homologous chromosomes
coiled, shorter, thicker, visible pair align randomly at
under microscope. metaphase plate, lined up
 Homologous chromosomes side by side as tetrads.
come together form bivalents Attached to spindle fibres.
2) through process –Synapsis. One  Centromeres do not divide.
paternal, the other one, maternal.
 Bivalent consists of Tetrad 3) ANAPHASE I
consists of 2 Homologous  Spindles are shortened, pull.
chromosomes (Pair of 2 sister  Homologous chromosomes
chromatids).
separate. Homologous
 Crossing over – DNA or gene
chromosomes, each containing
3) exchange between Non-sister
2 sister chromatids, move to
chromatids, occur at any
separate poles.
locations on chromosome, results  Centromeres do not split and
in new gene combinations on
sister chromatids remain
chromosome.
paired.
 Chiasmata – points where cross  Sister chromatids become
over occurs.
4) daughter chromosomes.
 Nucleolus & nuclear membrane  Each pole receives the HALF
disappears.
number of chromosomes as the
 Centrioles migrate to poles.
parent cell.
n
4) TELOPHASE I
 The chromosomes are at the poles.
 Each pole has haploid daughter
chromosomes.
 Spindle fibre disappears.
 Nucleolus & nuclear membrane reforms.
CYTOKINESIS Each of the 2 daughter
 Resulting in 2 haploid daughter cells. Each cell has 1 cells is now haploid (n),
chromosome from a homologous pair.
 No Interphase before Meiosis II starts. No DNA with HALF the number of
replication. Chromosomes remained condensed. chromosomes per
nucleus.

In some species, the

nuclear membrane
briefly forms around the
chromosomes.

 The cell now proceeds

into meiosis II, with the
chromosomes remaining
condensed.

 Meiosis I proceeds
directly to meiosis II
without going through
interphase.
 n Meiosis II, resembles Mitosis
1)
Chromosomal numbers, which have already
been reduced to Haploid (n) by the end of
meiosis I, remain unchanged after this division.

2) 1) PROPHASE II 2) METAPHASE II
 Nucleolus &  Chromosomes as sister
nuclear membrane chromatids are aligned
disappears. randomly at metaphase plate.
 Spindle fibre  Still attached to spindle fibre at
reforms centromere.

3) 3) ANAPHASE II
 Spindles are shortened. 4) TELOPHASE II
 Chromatids of each  Nucleolus & nuclear
chromosome have separated membrane are
(divide at the centromeres). reforming.
 The resulting chromosomes,  Spindle fibre
each with one chromatid disappears.
4) moving towards the poles.
 Each pole receives the same
number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
n

CYTOKINESIS
 4 haploid daughter cells are formed. Each
contains half number chromosomes, gene from
parent cell. These cells = Gametes.
Single
chromatid

Daughter
cells
GAMETES

These 4 cells:
 HAPLOID CELLS (Daughter cells) = HALF no. of chromosomes of the
Parent cell (23 chromosomes).

 Cells are not identical, crossing over in prophase I and random

arrangements of bivalents in metaphase I leads to different genetic
composition of these cells.

 In humans, meiosis produces genetically different haploid daughter

cells, each with 23 chromosomes that consist of one chromatid. These
haploid cells become unfertilized eggs in females and sperm in males.
The genetic differences ensure siblings of the same parents are never
entirely genetically identical.
 Synapsis
Blue = AA Blue = Aa
Red = aa Red = Aa

 Synapsis = process when homologous chromosomes pair up.

 Crossing over = process in which non-sister chromatids exchange segments of DNA.

 This leads to genetic recombination (exchange of genetic material) between the

chromatids (1 from Father, 1 from Mother).

 BLUE and RED chromosomes, which originally carried AA and aa alleles,

respectively, now carry Aa alleles in both chromosomes at the end of prophase I.

 Note that these bivalents have 2 chromosomes and 4 sister chromatids,

with 1 chromosome originating from each parent.

 The point where a crossover occurs is called a chiasma (plural chiasmata).

 22+ X 22+ X 22+ X 22+ X

22+ X 22+ X 22+ Y 22+ Y

Ovum Sperm Zygote

FERTILIZATION
 Sex Chromosomes

 The male gametes or sperm cells in humans and other mammals contain
one of two types of sex chromosomes. They are either X or Y.

 The female gametes or eggs however, contain only the X sex

chromosome.

 The sperm cell determines the sex of an individual in this case. If a

sperm cell containing an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting
zygote will be XX or female. If the sperm cell contains a Y chromosome,
then the resulting zygote will be XY or male.
 MITOSIS SIMILARITY MEIOSIS
DNA replicates only once

DIFFERENCES
Somatic cells Cell type Cells in reproductive
organs
Produce new cells for Role Produce gametes for
growth & repair sexual reproduction
Chromosomes arrange Metaphase of Mitosis Homologous
individually at plate Metaphase I chromosomes arrange
side by side at plate
Sister chromatids Anaphase of Mitosis Homologous
separate Anaphase I chromosomes separate,
sister chromatids still remain
attached
No Synapsis Yes, to form bivalents
No Crossing over Yes, between non-sister
chromatids
 DIFFERENCES
1 No. of divisions 2
2 No. of daughter cells 4
46, diploid (2n) Chromosome 23, haploid (n)
number of daughter
cells
Identical Genetic content Different
No Genetic variation Yes
 Importance of Meiosis

 Ensure diploid number chromosomes is maintained from one

generation to next.
 Provide genetic variations.
 Leads to genetic recombinations:
a) Prophase I – Crossing over. Genetic material exchange between
non-sister chromatids of a bivalent. Formation of new gene
combination on a chromosome.
b) Metaphase I – Random arrangement or Independent assortment.
Homologous chromosomes arranged independently, randomly at
metaphase plate.
 Gametes have different gene combinations. Random fertilization
of ovum by a sperm results in genetic variation in organisms.
 Appreciating movement of chromosomes
 Asexual reproduction through Mitosis
produce offspring identical to parent.
Sexual reproduction through Meiosis
produce genetic variability in offspring.

 If meiosis does not occur properly,

gametes formed will have abnormal
number of chromosomes. Zygote formed
later be abnormal. Eg; Down’s syndrome –
result of extra chromosome 21, each body
cell has a total of 47 chromosomes instead
of 46. Have certain characteristics include
small body & mental retardation.

 Certain environmental agents – radiation,

chemicals, food contains preservations,
carcinogenic disrupt process mitosis &
meiosis, change DNA structure.