Control Theory Slides

Introduction to Control Systems
Text book: K. Ogata Modern control Engineering. 5 th edition
DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 1

applications
• Robotic systems
• Missile guidance systems
• Industrial processes
• Transportations

Liquid-level system

Manipulated Controlled variable
variable plant
Reference input
Feedback Signal
Feedback
Element

Definitions.
• controlled variable is the quantity or condition
that is measured and controlled. the controlled
variable is the output of the system.
• The manipulated variable is the quantity or
condition that is varied by the controller so as to
affect the value of the controlled variable.
Normally,

• Control means measuring the value of the
controlled variable of the system and applying
the manipulated variable to the system to
correct or limit deviation of the measured
value from a desired value.
• Plants.. Plants. A plant may be a piece of
equipment, perhaps just a set of machine
parts functioning together, the purpose of
which is to perform a particular operation.
• Processes. defines a process to be a natural,
progressively continuing operation or
development marked by a series of gradual
changes that succeed one another in a
relatively fixed way and lead toward a
particular result or end;
• Systems. A system is a combination of
components that act together and perform a
certain objective.
• Disturbances. A disturbance is a signal that
tends to adversely affect the value of the
output of a system. If a disturbance is
generated within the system, it is called
internal, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.

• Feedback Control Feedback control refers to
an operation that, in the presence of
disturbances, tends to reduce the difference
between the output of a system and some
reference input and that does so on the basis
of this difference.

Closed-Loop control Versus Open-Loop
control
• Feedback control systems. A system that
maintains a prescribed relationship between
the output and the reference input by
comparing them and using the difference as a
means of control is called a feedback control
system

Closed-loop control systems
• Closed-loop control systems. Feedback control systems
are often referred to as closed-loop control systems.
• In practice, the terms feedback control and closed-loop
control are used interchangeably.
• In a closed-loop control system the actuating error
signal, which is the difference between the input signal
and the feedback signal , is fed to the controller so as to
reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a
desired value.

open-loop control systems
• open-loop control systems. Those systems in
which the output has no effect on the control
action are called open-loop control systems.
• In other words, in an open-loop control
system the output is neither measured nor fed
back for comparison with the input.

• In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop
control system will not perform the desired
task.
• Open-loop control can be used, in practice,
only if the relationship between the input and
output is known and if there are neither
internal nor external disturbances.

• Closed-loop versus open-loop control systems.
possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive
components to obtain the accurate control of a given
plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop
case.
From the point of view of stability, the open-loop

control system is easier to build because system stability
is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is a
major problem in the closed-loop control system,

• The amount or fuel admitted to the engine is adjusted according to
the difference between the desired and the actual engine speeds.
The sequence of actions may be stated as follows:
• The speed governor is adjusted such that, at the desired speed, no
pressured oil will flow into either side of the power cylinder.
• If the actual speed drops below the desired value due to disturbance,
then the decrease in the centrifugal force of the speed governor
causes the control valve to move downward, supplying more fuel, and
the speed of the engine increases until the desired value is reached,
• On the other hand, if the speed of the engine increases above the
desired value, then the increase in the centrifugal force of the
governor causes the control valve to move upward. This decreases the
supply of fuel, and the speed of the engine decreases until the desired
value is reached.

Robot control system

• the computerized robot recognizes the
presence and orientation of each mechanical
part by a pattern-recognition process that
consists of reading the code numbers attached
to it. Then the robot picks up the part and
moves it to an appropriate place for
assembling, and there it assembles several
parts into a component. A well-programmed
digital computer acts as a controller.
Temperature control system

• The temperature in the electric furnace is measured
by a thermometer, which is an analog device.
• The analog temperature is converted to a digital
temperature by an AID converter.
• The digital temperature is fed to a controller through
an interface.
• This digital temperature is compared with the
programmed input temperature, and if there is any
error, the controller sends out a signal to
the heater
UNIT 2
Laplace Transform

• Why Laplace Transform
• Definition of Laplace Transform
• Existence of Laplace transform
• Laplace transform Table
• Laplace Transform properties
• Inverse Laplace Transform

Why Laplace Transform
• Solving linear differential equations
• Obtaining transfer functions
• Converts many functions into algebraic functions of s
• Converts LDEs into algebraic equations of s
• Use graphical techniques for predicting a system performance with out

solving DE

Definition of Laplace Transform

Existence of Laplace transform
Laplace transform of a function f(t) exists if
1. f(t) is sectionally continuous in every finite interval in the range t> 0
2.f(t) is of exponential order as t approaches infinity. A function f(t) is said to be of exponential

order if a real, positive constant a exists such that the function
approaches zero as t approaches infinity.
3.

EXAMPLES

Laplace Transform Pairs

INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
• the inverse Laplace transform can be
obtained by use of the inversion integral
• However, the inversion integral is

complicated

• A convenient method for obtaining inverse
Laplace transforms is to use a table of
Laplace transforms.
. In this case, the Laplace transform must be in

a form immediately recognizable in such a
table.

• Quite often the function in question may not
appear in tables of Laplace transforms
• then we may expand it into partial fractions
and write F(s) in terms of simple functions of
s for which the inverse Laplace transforms
are already known.

Partial-fraction expansion method for finding
inverse Laplace transforms.
• For problems in control systems analysis, F(s), the Laplace
transform of f(t), frequently occurs in the form
• where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in s. In the

expansion of F(s) into a partial-fraction form, it is
important that the highest power of s in A(s) be greater
than the highest power of s in B(s),
• If such is not the case, the numerator B(s) must be
divided by the denominator A(s) in order to produce a
polynomial ins plus a remainder
• It should be noted, however, that in applying
the partial-fraction expansion technique in
the search for the inverse Laplace transform
of F(s) = B(s)/A(s) the roots of the
denominator polynomial A(s) must be
obtained in advance. That is, this method
does not apply until the denominator
polynomial has been factored

If F(s) is broken up into components,
and if the inverse Laplace transforms of F1(s),

F2(s), . . . , Fn(s) are ready available, then

Inverse Laplace Transforms
There are three cases to consider in doing the partial fraction expansion of F(s).
Case 1: F(s) has all non repeated

simple roots.(distinct poles)
Case 2: F(s) has complex poles:
Case 3: F(s) has repeated poles.

(multiple poles)

Case #1 Partial-fraction expansion when F(s)
involves distinct poles only
• Consider
-z1,-z2,…-zm are the zeros of F(s)

-p1,-p2,…-pn are the poles of F(s)
Partial Fraction Expansion

Multiply both sides by (s+a1)
a 2 ( s  p1 ) a n ( s  p1 )
( s  p1 ) F ( s )  a1   ....  a 2 ( s  p1 )
s  p2 s  pn
Set s= -P1
( s  p1 ) F ( s ) s   p1  a1

Partial-Fraction Expansion
10s K1 K2
Hs    
s  4 s  9  s  4 s  9
 10s  10s  40
K1  s  4        8
 s  4 s  9 s 4 s  9 s 4 5
 10s  10s  90
K 2  s  9       18
 s  4 s  9 s 9 s  4 s 9 5
8 18 8s  72  18s  72 10s
Hs      Check.
s4 s9 s  4 s  9  s  4 s  9 
ht   8e4 t  18e9t ut 

43
Case #2 Partial-fraction expansion when
F(s) involves complex poles
• Since the initial equations are real, complex
poles will always appear as complex conjugate
pole pairs
• Complex poles pairs in the partial fraction
expansion of the Laplace transform

Method of completing the square

Algebraic method
• Multiply both sides by a common
denominator
num[F(s)]=den[F(s)]k1+den[F(s)]k2+…+den[F(s)]kn
• Equate the coefficients of equals powers
2s  k1s  7k2 s
3 3 3

Example
• Find the inverse Laplace transform of
Solution.Scince

• we notice that F(s) involves a pair of complex-
conjugate poles, and so we expand it into the
form

• By comparing coefficients of s^2, and s terms
on both sides of this last equation,
respectively, we obtain
from which

• Therefore,

• The inverse Laplace transform of F(s) gives
If the pair of poles are imaginary, then

Case #3 Partial-fraction expansion when
F(s) involves multiple poles
• Instead of discussing the general case, we
shall use an example to show how to obtain
the partial- fraction expansion of F(s).
• Consider the following F(s):

SOLVING LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
• In solving linear, time-invariant, differential

equations by the Laplace transform method, two
steps are involved.
1. By taking the Laplace transform of each term in

the given differential equation, convert the
differential equation into an algebraic equation in s
and obtain the expression for the Laplace
transform of the dependent variable by rearranging
the algebraic equation.

• 2. The time solution of the differential
equation is obtained by finding the inverse
Laplace transform of the dependent variable.
• Example
Find the solution of the differential equation

UNIT#3A
Mathematical Modeling
of Dynamic Systems

• Mathematical Models
• linear and nonlinear systems.
• transfer function
• block diagrams
• Examples

Need for Mathematical models
• Must have a quantitative Mathematical model
in order to understand and control complex
systems
• Must have fundamental methods for modeling
many physical systems:
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Hydraulic
Steps in Modeling
• Understand the physical systems and its
components
• Make appropriate simplifying assumptions
• Use basic principles to formulate the
mathematical model
• Write differential and algebraic equations
describing the model
• Check the model for validity
What will the model be used for
• Solution of the differential and algebraic equations
allows system response and performance to analyzed
and designed
• The Laplace transform will be applied to the model to
allow convenient manipulations and dynamic analysis
• Input-output relationships for system and components
will be obtained
• Controller models will be designed that can be
implemented in hardware
Simplicity versus accuracy
• . It is possible to improve the accuracy of a mathematical
model by increasing its complexity.
• we must make a compromise between the simplicity of the
model and the accuracy of the results of the analysis.
• In deriving a reasonably simplified mathematical model, we
frequently find it necessary to ignore certain inherent physical
properties of the system.
• In particular, it is always necessary to ignore certain
nonlinearities and distributed parameters that may be
present in the physical system.

Linear systems
• . A system is linear if the principle of
superposition applies.
• The principle of superposition states that the
response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different input functions is
the sum of the two individual responses

Linear time-invariant systems
• A differential equation is linear if the coefficients are
constants or functions only of the independent variable.
• Dynamic systems that are composed of linear time-
invariant lumped-parameter components may be
described by linear time-invariant (constant- coefficient)
differential equations, Such systems are called linear
time-invariant (or linear constant-coefficient) systems.

linear time-varying systems
• Systems that are represented by differential
equations whose coefficients are functions of
time are called linear time-varying systems. An
example of a time-varying control system is a
spacecraft control system. (The mass of a
spacecraft changes due to fuel consumption.)

Nonlinear systems
• A system is nonlinear if the principle of
superposition does not apply.
• Thus, for a nonlinear system the response to
two inputs cannot be calculated by treating
one input at a time and adding the results.

Examples of nonlinear differential
equations

Examples of nonlinearities

TRANSFER FUNCTION
• transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the
input—output relationships of components or systems that
can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential
equations.
• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential

equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace
transform of the input (driving function) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Consider a system defined :
where y is the output of the system and x is the input

• The transfer function of this system is
obtained by taking the Laplace transforms of
both sides of Equation under the assumption
that all initial conditions are zero, or

Comments on transfer function
• The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an
operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates
the output variable to the input variable.
• The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the

magnitude and nature of the input or driving function.
• The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to
the output; however, it does not provide any information concerning the
physical structure of the system. (The transfer functions of many
physically different systems can be identical.)

• If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or
response can be studied for various forms of inputs with a
view toward understanding the nature of the system.
• If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be

established experimentally by introducing known inputs and
studying the output of the system.
• a transfer function gives a full description of the dynamic

characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical
description.

IMPULSE-
RESPONSE FUNCTION
Impulse-response function. Consider the output (response) of
a system to a unit impulse input when the initial conditions are
zero, Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function
is unity, the Laplace transform of the output of the system is
The inverse Laplace transform of the output gives the impulse

response of the system. The inverse Laplace transform of G(s),
or
is called the impulse-response function. This function g(t) is
also called the weighting function of the system.

To derive the transfer function
1. Write the differential equation for the system.
2. Take the Laplace transform of the differential

equation, assuming all initial conditions are zero.
3. Take the ratio of the output C(s) to the input R(s).

This ratio is the transfer function.

BLOCK DIAGRAMS
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial

representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals.
Such diagram depicts the interrelationships that
exist among the various components. Differing from
a purely abstract mathematical representation,
a block diagram has the advantage of indicating
more realistically the signal flows of the actual
system.

• In a block diagram all system variables are
linked to each other through functional blocks.
• The functional block or simply block is a

symbol for the mathematical operation on the
input signal to the block that produces the
output.
• The transfer functions of the components are
usually entered in the corresponding blocks,
which are connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of the flow of signals.

Element of a block diagram.
The arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the input.
the arrowhead leading away from the block represents the output.
Such arrows are referred to as signals.

Summing Point
a circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing

operation
.
The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether
that signal is to be added or subtracted.
It is important that the quantities being added or subtracted

have the same dimensions and the same units.
Branch Point
• branch point is a point from which the signal from a
block goes Summing point, concurrently to other
blocks or summing points.

Block diagram of a closed-loop system.

• B(s) the feedback signal
• E(s) actuating error signal
• G(S) Feed forward transfer function
• G(s)H(s) Open-loop transfer function
• C(s) / R (s) Closed-loop transfer function

• Modeling in State Space
Dr. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 95

Modern control theory versus conventional
control theory.
• Modern control theory is applicable to multiple-input—
multiple-output systems, which may be linear or nonlinear,
time invariant or time varying,
• conventional control theory is applicable only to linear time-

invariant single-input—single-output systems.
• modern control theory is essentially a time-domain

approach, while conventional control theory is a complex
frequency- domain approach.

definitions
• State. The state of a dynamic system is the
smallest set of variables (called state
variables) such that the knowledge of these
variables at t = to, together with the
knowledge of the input for t≥ t0, completely
determines the behavior of the system for any
time t ≥to.

• State variables. The state variables of a dynamic
system are the variables making up the smallest set
of variables that determine the state of the dynamic
system. If at least n variables x1, x2,. . . , xn, are
needed to completely describe the behavior of a
dynamic system (so that once the input is given for t
≥ to and the initial state at t = t0 is specified, the
future state of the system is completely
determined), then such n variables are a set of state
variables.

• State vector. If n state variables are needed
to completely describe the behavior of a
given system, then these n state variables can
be considered the n components of a vector
x. Such a vector is called a state vector.
• State space. The n-dimensional space whose
coordinate axes consist of the x1 axis, x2
axis,.. . , xn, axis is called a state space.

• State-space equations. In state-space analysis
we are concerned with three types of
variables that are involved in the modeling of
dynamic systems:
• input variables,
• output variables,
• and state variables

STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS
Case #1 The input does not involve derivative terms
• By use of vector-matrix notation, an nth-order

differential equation may be expressed by a first- order
vector-matrix differential equation. If n elements of
the vector are a set of state variables, then the vector-
matrix differential equation is a state equation. In this
section we shall present methods for obtaining state-
space representations of continuous- time systems.

• Assume that a multiple-input—multiple-
output system involves
• n state variables x1(t), x2(t),..., xn(t).
• Assume also that there are r inputs u1(t),
u2(t), . . . , ur(t)
• and m outputs y1(t), y2(t),…, ym(t).
• Then the system may be described by

• then the state equations and the output
equations become
And the linearized equations

• Where:
• A(s) the state matrix, (n*n)
• B(s) the input matrix, (n*r)
• C(s) the output matrix,(m*n)
• D(t) the direct transmission matrix.(m*r)
• A block diagram representation of These
Equations

EXAMPLE Mechanical system
u(t) is the input to the system,
the displacement y(t) of the mass is the

output.
. This system is a single-input—single-output

system.
From the diagram, the system equation is

Let us define state variables x1 (t) and x2(t) as
x1(t)=y(t)
Then we obtain

• Or

block diagram for the system

Correlation between transfer functions and
state-space equations

• The Laplace transform
assume that x(0) is zero. Then we have
Or

=
=
By substituting this Equation into the output equation, we get

EXAMPLES
RC Circuit
Parameters: R,C
Independent variables (inputs): ei
dependent variables (outputs): eo, i

Laplace Transformed equations

LRC circuit
• Consider the electrical circuit shown . The
circuit consists of an inductance L (henry), a
resistance R (ohm), and a capacitance C
(farad). Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the
system, we obtain the following equations:

If e is assumed to be the input and e0 the output, then the
transfer function of this system is found to

Transfer functions of cascaded elements

• Taking the Laplace transforms of Equations ,
assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain

And the transfer function

Liquid-level system

• For linear or linearized system

Example: Mechanical system
• Consider the satellite attitude control system . The diagram shows the
control of only the yaw angle θ.
• Small jets apply reaction forces to rotate the satellite body into the
desired position. The two skew symmetrically placed jets denoted by A
or B operate in pairs.
• Assume that each jet thrust is F/2 and a torque T = Fl is applied to the
system. The jets are applied for a certain time duration and thus the
torque can be written as T(t).
• The moment of inertia about the axis of rotation at the center of mass is
J.
Let us obtain the transfer function of this system by assuming that
torque T(t) is the input, and the angular displacement θ(t) of the satellite
is the output.

• MECHANICAL SYSTEM

• Applying Newton’s second law to the present
system and noting that there is no friction in
the environment of the satellite, we have
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides of this last

equation and assuming all initial conditions to be
zero yields

Block Diagram Manipulation
(reduction)
• We often represent control systems using
block diagrams. A block diagram consists of
blocks that
represent transfer functions of the different
variables of interest.
• If a block diagram has many blocks, not all of
which are in cascade, then it is useful to have
rules for rearranging the diagram such that
you end up with only one block.
For example, we would want to transform
the following diagram
Block Diagram Transformations
1.Combining blocks in cascade
2. Moving a summing
point behind a block
3. Moving a pickoff point ahead
of a block
4. Moving a pickoff
point behind a block
5. Moving a summing
point ahead of a block
6. Eliminating a
feedback loop
7. replacing summing points
8. Combining summing points
Attention
Don't use this
Example
Example
Example
Signal-flow graph
• Alternative method to block diagram
representation, developed by S.J.Mason.
• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain
formula, also called Mason’s gain formula.
• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in
which nodes are connected by directed
branches.
• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of
a system to another and gives the
relationships among the signals. Note that the
signal flows in only one direction.

Definitions
• Node - a point representing a signal or variable.
• Branch – unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.
• Path – a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that
can be traversed from one node to another node.
• Loop – a closed path that originates and terminates on the
same node and along the path no node is met twice.
• Nontouching loops – two loops are said to be nontouching if
they do not have a common node.

Corresponding
Signal-flow graph of block diagram
interconnected system
a11 x1  a12 x 2  r1  x1 Signal-flow graph

of two algebraic
a 21 x1  a 22 x 2  r2  x 2
equations

Mason’s gain formula
The linear dependence Tij between the independent variable xi
(also called the input variable) and a dependent variable xj is

P k k
Write the gain formula in a simplified form: T k
Systematic approach:
1. Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for
each forward path k
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions
3. Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time
4. Consider nontouching loops 3 at a time
5. etc
6. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
7. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ not touching forward
path k
1.Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for each forward path k.
PP1 G G
1 1 1G
GG
2 3
G31)G4and(path
G 2(path
4 2P  G 1)
5 G G G and
6 7(path 2)
8
P2  G5G6G7G8 (path 2)
2.Calculate all loop TF’s.
L1  G2 H 2 , L2  H 3G3 , L3  G6 H 6 , L4  G7 H 7
3.Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time.
Loops L1 and L2 do not touch Loops L3 and L4

4. Consider nontouching loops 3 at a time.
None.
5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.
  1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 
6. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ not touching
forward path k.
1  1  L3  L4  and  2  1  L1  L2 
The TF of the system is

Y ( s) P   P2  2
 T ( s)  1 1
R( s ) 

Time response of Control Systems

Transient response and steady-state
response
• The time response of a control system
consists of two parts:
• transient response means that which goes
from the initial state to the final state.(free or
natural response)
• steady-state response, we mean the manner
in which the system output behaves as t
approaches infinity.(forced response)

typical input signals
typical input signals to use for analyzing system
characteristics may he determined by the form of the
input that the system will be subjected to most
frequently under normal operation.
If the inputs to a control system are gradually changing
functions of time, then a ramp function of time may be a
good test signal.
if a system is subjected to sudden disturbances, a step
function of time may be a good test signal;
and for a system subjected to shock inputs, an impulse
function may be best.
• Once a control system is designed on the basis
of test signals, the performance of the system
in response to actual inputs is generally
satisfactory. The use of such test signals
enables one to compare the performance of
all systems on the same basis.

FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
• Consider the first-order system shown .
Physically, this system may represent an RC
circuit, thermal system, or the like.

• A simplified block diagram is shown in Figure
(b). The input—output relationship is given by
In the following, we shall analyze the system

responses to such inputs as the unit-step, unit-
ramp, and unit-impulse functions. The initial
conditions are assumed to be zero.

Unit-step response of first-order systems
• Since the Laplace transform of the unit-step

function is 1/s, substituting R(s) , we obtain
• Expanding C(s) into partial fractions gives

t(SEC) 0 T 2T 3T 4T inf
c(T) 0 63.2% 86.5% 95% 98.2% 1

COMMENTS
• smaller the time constant T, faster the system
response.
• Another important characteristic of the
exponential response curve is that the slope of
the tangent line at t = 0 is 1/T. since
• The output would reach the final value at t = T

if it maintained its initial speed of response
• the steady state is reached mathematically
only after an infinite time.
• In practice, however, a reasonable estimate of
the response time is the length of time the
response curve needs to reach the 2% line of
the final value, or four time constants.

Unit-ramp response of first-order systems
• Since the Laplace transform of the unit-ramp

function is 1/s, we obtain the output of the
system as

Unit-impulse response of first-order
systems
• Since the Laplace transform of the unit-impulse
function is R(s)=1, we obtain the output of the
system

• Comparison of the system responses to these
three inputs clearly indicates that :
• the response to the derivative of an input
signal can be obtained by differentiating the
response of the system to the original signal.
• the response to the integral of the original
signal can be obtained by integrating the
response of the system to the original signal
• This is a property of linear time-invariant
systems.

SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
Example: servo system

The closed-loop transfer function of a second order system
and the block diagram are

• The dynamic behavior of the second-order system
can then be described in terms of two parameters
• undamped natural frequency
• damping ratio
• We shall now solve for the response of the system a
unit-step input. We shall consider three different
cases:
• the underdamped (0 < ζ < 1),
• critically damped (ζ = 1),
• overdamped (ζ> 1)
• ζ = 0, the transient response does not die out.

Underdamped case (0 < ζ < I):
the damped natural frequency

For a unit-step input, C(s) can be written

2.undamped case ζ=0
the response becomes undamped and oscillations
continue indefinitely. The response c(t) for the zero
damping case can be obtained by substituting zeta = 0 in
forgoing Equation

Step Response
From: untitled/Constant (1) To: untitled/Transfer Fcn (1)
2
1.8
1.6
2
1.4
1
1.2
Amplitude
0.8
4 3
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Time (sec)
unit-step time response

• 3.verdamped case (ζ> 1):
• In this case, the two poles are negative
real and unequal. For a unit-step input
Dr. Ibrahim Al-Abbas

182
4.Critically damped case (ζ = 1):
• If the two poles are nearly equal

transient-response specifications
• In specifying the transient-response characteristics
of a control system to a unit-step input, it is
common to specify the following:
1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time, tr
3. Peak time, tp
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp
5. Settling time, ts

• Rise time tr: we obtain the rise time t, by
letting c(tr) = 1in the output for under
damped case, or

• Peak time Referring to the same output, we
may obtain the peak time by differentiating
c(t) with respect to time and letting this
derivative equal zero. Since
and the cosine terms in this last equation cancel each

other, dc/dt, evaluated at t = tp, can be simplified to
This last equation yields the following

equation:
Since the peak time corresponds to the first peak overshoot,
.Maximum overshoot
The maximum overshoot occurs at the peak time or at t =
tp . Thus, Mp is obtained as

• Settling time
• The speed of decay of the transient
response
 n depends on the value of the time
constant
• T= 1/
• Then the settling time is:

Example: Servo system with velocity feedback

For the system, determine the values of gain K and
velocity feedback constant Kh so that the maximum
overshoot in the unit-step response is 0.2 and the
peak time is 1 sec. With these values of K and Kh,
obtain the rise time and settling time. Assume that
J 1 kg-m2 and B = 1 N-m/rad/sec.

Higher order systems &
Routh’s Stability Criterion
Dr. Ibrahim Al-abbas 197

 Higher order systems
u t  y t 
G
Y  s   G  s U  s 
m
K   s  zi 
G s   i 1
q
 
r
 s  pi  s 2
 2 
k nk s   2
nk
j 1 k 1

a q ak r b  s  2    c  2
Y s     k k nk k dk
s k 1 s  pk k 1 s 2  2 k nk s  nk
2
dk  nk 1   k2
q
 pk t
y t   a   k
a e
k 1
r
  e k nk t bk cos dk t   ck sin dk t 
k 1

 Additional pole
System model (temporally normalized)
1
G s 
 
sn2  2 sn  1  sn  1
n
 pole at 

Dr. Ibrahim Al-abbas 200 200

 Empirical result
 Second order system response when
n
 10n Dominant pole pair

 10

Effect as pole approaches second order pair
 Fix damping ratio at z = 0.45
 Simulate for various values of third pole
Re  ppair   n  0.45n
-0.45

1.4
1.2
1
Normaized Response
0.8
0.6
1/  = -Pole=0.44444
1/  = -Pole=0.66667
0.4 1/  = -Pole=1.1111
1/  = -Pole=2.5
1/  = -Pole=20
0.2
1/  = -Pole=Inf
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Routh’s Stability Criterion
• Goal: Determining whether the system is stable or unstable

from a characteristic equation in polynomial form without
actually solving for the roots.
• Routh’s stability criterion is useful for determining the

ranges of coefficients of polynomials for stability, especially
when the coefficients are in symbolic (nonnumerical) form

A necessary condition for Routh
Stability
• A necessary condition for stability of the system is that all of
the roots of its characteristic equation have negative real
parts, which in turn requires that all the coefficients be
positive.
A necessary (but not sufficient) condition for stability

is that all the coefficients of the polynomial
characteristic equation be positive.

A necessary and sufficient condition
for Stability
• Routh’s formulation requires the computation of a
triangular array that is a function of the coefficients of the
polynomial characteristic equation.
A system is stable if and only if all the elements of

the first column of the Routh array are positive

Characteristic Equation
• Consider an nth-order system whose the characteristic

equation (which is also the denominator of the transfer
function) is:
a ( s )  a0 s n  a1s n 1  a2 s n  2    an 1s1  an s 0

Method for determining the Routh array
• Consider the characteristic equation:
a ( s )  a0  s n  a1s n 1  a2 s n  2  a3 s n 3    an 1s1  an s 0
• First arrange the coefficients of the characteristic

equation in two rows, beginning with the first and second
coefficients and followed by the even-numbered and odd-
numbered coefficients:
s n : ao a2 a4 
n 1
s : a1 a3 a5 
Routh array: method (cont’d)
• Then add subsequent n

s : ao a2 a4 
rows to complete the
n 1
Routh array: s : a1 a3 a5 
n2
s : b1 b2 b3 
?!
n 3
s : c1 c2 c3 
   
2
s : * *
1
s : *
0
s :
Dr. Ibrahim Al-abbas * 210
• Compute elements for the s n : ao a2 a4 
3rd row:
n 1
s : a1 a3 a5 
a1a2  a0 a3 n2
b1  , s : b1 b2 b3 
a1
n 3
a1a4  a0  a5 s : c1 c2 c3 
b2  ,
a1    
a1a6  a0 a7 s : 2
* *
b3 
a1 1
s : *
0
s :
Dr. Ibrahim Al-abbas
* 211
• Compute elements for n
s : a0 a 2 a4 
the 4th row:
n 1
s : a1 a3 a5 
b1 a3  a1b2 n2
c1  s : b1 b2 b3 
b1 n 3
s : c1 c2 c3 
b1 a5  a1b3
c2     
b1 2
s : * *
b1 a 7  a1b4 1
c3  s : *
b1 0
s :
Dr. Ibrahim Al-abbas
* 212
Example 1:
Given the characteristic equation,
a (s)  s 6  4s 5  3s 4  2s 3  s 2  4s  4
is the system described by this characteristic equation stable?
Answer:
• One coefficient (-2) is negative.
• Therefore, the system does not satisfy the necessary

condition for stability.

Example 2:
Given the characteristic equation,
a ( s )  s 6  4 s 5  3s 4  2 s 3  s 2  4 s  4
is the system described by this characteristic equation stable?
Answer:
• All the coefficients are positive and nonzero.
• Therefore, the system satisfies the necessary condition for
stability.
• We should determine whether any of the coefficients of the
first column of the Routh array are negative.

Example 2 (cont’d): Routh array
a ( s )  s 6  4 s 5  3s 4  2 s 3  s 2  4 s  4
6
s : 1 3 1 4
s5 : 4 2 4 0
4
s : ? ? ?
s3 : ? ? ?
s2 : ? ?
1
s : ? ?
s0 : ?
a ( s )  s 6  4 s 5  3s 4  2 s 3  s 2  4 s  4
6
s : 1 3 1 4
4 * 3  1* 2 5
5
s : 4 2 4 0 b1  
4 2
4
s : 52 0 4 4 *1  1 * 4
b2  0
s3 : ? ? ? 4
4 * 4  1* 0
s2 : ? ? b3  4
4
s1 : ? ?
s0 : ?
a ( s )  s 6  4 s 5  3s 4  2 s 3  s 2  4 s  4
s6 : 1 3 1 4
s5 : 4 2 4 0 2.5 * 2  4 * 0
c1  2
s4 : 5 2 0 4 2.5
2.5 * 4  4 * 4
s3 : 2  12 5 0 c2   12 / 5
2.5
s2 : ? ?
2.5 * 0  4 * 0
s1 : ? ? c3  0
2.5
s0 : ?

a ( s )  s 6  4 s 5  3s 4  2 s 3  s 2  4 s  4
s6 : 1 3 1 4
s5 : 4 2 4 0
s4 : 52 0 4
s3 : 2  12 5 0 The elements of
s2 : 3 4 the 1st column
s1 :  76 15 0 are not all positive:
s0 : 4
the system is unstable

Example 3: Stability versus Parameter Range
Consider a feedback system such as:
The stability properties of this system are a function of the

proportional feedback gain K. Determine the range of K
over which the system is stable.

Example 3 (cont’d)
• The characteristic equation for the system is given by:

s 1
1 K 0
s ( s  1)( s  6)

s 1
1 K 0
s ( s  1)( s  6)
• Expressing the characteristic equation in polynomial
form, we obtain:
s  5s  ( K  6) s  K  0
3 2

a ( s )  s 3  5s 2  ( K  6) s  K
• The corresponding Routh • Therefore, the system is

array is: stable if and only if
s3 : 1 K 6 4K  30
 0 and K  0
5
s2 : 5 K
 K  7.5 and K  0
s1 : (4 K  30) 5
s0 : K  K  7 .5

Example 4: Stability versus Two Parameter
Range
Consider a Proportional-Integral (PI) control such as:
Find the range of the controller gains

( K , K1 ) so that the PI
feedback system is stable.

• The characteristic equation for the system is given by:
 K1  1
1  K   0
 s  ( s  1 )( s  2 )

 K1  1
1  K   0
 s  ( s  1 )( s  2 )
• Expressing the characteristic equation in polynomial

form, we obtain:
s  3s  ( 2  K )s  K1  0
3 2

a ( s )  s 3  5s 2  ( K  6) s  K
• The corresponding Routh • For stability, we must

array is: have:
s3 : 1 2 K
s2 : 3 K1 K1
K1  0 and K  2
s 1 : ( 6  3 K  K1 ) 3 3
s0 : K1

Zero 1st column element
 Replace element by e > 0
 Proceed as usual
 Example
d  s   s3  3s  2
 s3 1 3
 s2 0   2
1 3  2
 s 0

 s0 2
2 sign changes  2 roots in RHP  Roots at 1,1,  2 

Basic control actions
• A controller compares the actual value of
output with the reference input, determines the
deviation, and produces a control signal that
will reduce the deviation to zero or to a small
value.
• The manner in which the controller produces
the control signal is called the control action.
block diagram of an industrial control
system
Classifications of Industrial Controllers.
• 1. Two-position or on-off controllers

• 2. Proportional controllers
• 3. Integral controllers
• 4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers
• 5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers
• 6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative
controllers
Proportional Control of Systems.
• Such a system always has a steady-state error
in the step response. Such a steady-state error
is called an offset.
Integral Control of Systems.
Integral control of the system eliminates the

steady-state error in the response to the step
input.. 77
Response to Torque Disturbances
(Proportional Control)
Response to Torque Disturbances
(Proportional-Plus-Integral Control
• To eliminate offset due to torque disturbance,
the proportional controller may be replaced
by a proportional-plus-integral controller.
• If integral control action is added to the
controller, then, as long as there is an error
signal, a torque is developed by the controller
to reduce this error, provided the control
system is a stable one.
It is important to point out that if the controller were an integral controller,
then the system always becomes unstable because the characteristic
equation
will have roots with positive real parts. Such an unstable system cannot be
used in practice.
Proportional-Plus-Derivative Control
. Thus derivative control introduces a damping effect. A typical response

curve c ( t ) to a unit step input is shown in
• Effect of Proportional,
Integral & Derivative Gains on the
Dynamic Response
Change in gain in P controller
• Increase in gain:
 Upgrade both steady-

state and transient
responses
 Reduce steady-state
error
 Reduce stability!
P Controller with high gain
Integral Controller
• Integral of error with a constant gain
® increase the system type by 1
®eliminate steady-state error for
a unit step input
® amplify overshoot and oscillations
Change in gain for PI controller
 Do not upgrade steady-

state responses
 Increase slightly
settling time
 Increase oscillations
and overshoot!
Derivative Controller
• Differentiation of error with a constant gain
® detect rapid change in output
® reduce overshoot and oscillation
® do not affect the steady-state response
Effect of change for gain PD controller
 Upgrade transient
response
 Decrease the peak and
rise time
 Increase overshoot
and settling time!
Changes in gains for PID Controller
• These rules are used to determine Kp, Ti and
Td for PID controllers
• Firs Method: The response is obtained
experimentally to a unit step input. The plant
involves neither integrators nor differentiators
Second Method
• Set Ti= inf and Td=0, increase Kp from 0 t a
critical value Kcr where the output exhibits
sustained oscillations.
• Use Kcr , Pcr and Table 10-2 to determine the
parameters of the controller
Root Locus Design Method
Dr.Ibrahim Al-Abbas 259

Goal
Learn a specific technique which shows how

changes in one of a system’s parameter
(usually the controller gain, K)
will modify the location of the closed-loop
poles
in the s-domain.

Definition
• The closed-loop poles of the negative feedback control sysem:
are the roots of the characteristic equation:
1  KG s H s   0
The root locus is the locus of the closed-loop poles

when a specific parameter (usually gain, K)
is varied from 0 to infinity.
Dr.Ibrahim Al-Abbas
261
Root Locus Method Foundations
• The value of s in the s-plane that make the
loop gain KG(s)H(s) equal to -1 are the closed-
 KG s H s   0  KG s H s   1
loop1poles
(i.e. )
• KG(s)H(s) = -1 can be split into two equations

by equating the magnitudes and angles of
both sides of the equation.

Angle and Magnitude Conditions
KG s H s   1
 KG s H s   1

 KG s H s   180 0
2l  1
l  0 , 1, 2 , 
 G s H s   1 K

 G s H s    180 o
2l  1 l  0 , 1, 2 , 
Independent of K
Chapter 5:
Root Locus Design Method
Part B: Drawing Root Locus directly

(= without solving for the closed-loop
poles)

Learning by doing – Example 1
1) Sketch the root locus of the following

system:
2) Determine the value of K such that the

damping ratio ζ of a pair of dominant
complex conjugate closed-loop is 0.5.
Rule #1
Assuming n poles and m zeros for G(s)H(s):
• The n branches of the root locus start at the n

poles.
• m of these n branches end on the m zeros
• The n-m other branches terminate at infinity
along asymptotes.
First step: Draw the n poles and m zeros of

G(s)H(s) using x and o respectively
Applying Step #1
Draw the n poles and m
zeros of G(s)H(s)
using x and o
respectively. 1
G s H s  
s s  1s  2 
• 3 poles:
p1 = 0; p2 = -1; p3 = -2
• No zeros
Applying Step #1
Draw the n poles and m
zeros of G(s)H(s)
using x and o
respectively. 1
G s H s  
s s  1s  2 
• 3 poles:
p1 = 0; p2 = -1; p3 = -2
• No zeros
Rule #2
• The loci on the real axis are to the left of an
ODD number of REAL poles and REAL zeros
of G(s)H(s)
Second step: Determine the loci on the real

axis. Choose a arbitrary test point. If the
TOTAL number of both real poles and zeros is
to the RIGHT of this point is ODD, then this
point is on the root locus
Applying Step #2
Determine the loci on the
real axis:
• Choose a arbitrary test

point.
• If the TOTAL number of
both real poles and zeros
is to the RIGHT of this
point is ODD, then this

Applying Step #2
Determine the loci on the
real axis:
• Choose a arbitrary test

point.
• If the TOTAL number of
both real poles and zeros
is to the RIGHT of this
point is ODD, then this

Rule #3
The root loci for very large values of s must be asymptotic to
straight lines originate on the real axis at point:
 p z
i i
s   n m
nm
radiating out from this pointo at angles:
 180 2l  1
l 
nm
Third step: Determine the n - m asymptotes of the root loci.

Locate s = α on the real axis. Compute and draw angles. Draw
the asymptotes using dash lines.
Applying Step #3
Determine the n - m asymptotes:
Locate s = α on the real axis:
p1  p2  p3 0  1  2
s     1
30 3
Compute and draw angles:
 180 2l  1 l  0 , 1, 2 , 
l 
nm
  1800 2  0  1

 0   60 0
30

   180 2  1  1  1800
0
 1 30
Draw the asymptotes using
dash lines. Dr.Ibrahim Al-Abbas 273
Applying Step #3
Determine the n - m asymptotes:
Locate s = α on the real axis:
p1  p2  p3 0  1  2
s     1
30 3
Compute and draw angles:
 180 2l  1 l  0 , 1, 2 , 
l 
nm
  1800 2  0  1

 0   60 0
30

   180 2  1  1  1800
0
 1 30
Draw the asymptotes using
dash lines. Dr.Ibrahim Al-Abbas 274
Breakpoint Definition
• The breakpoints are the points in the s-

domain where multiples roots of the
characteristic equation of the feedback
control occur.
• These points correspond to intersection

points on the root locus.

Rule #4
Given the characteristic equation is KG(s)H(s) = -1
• The breakpoints are the closed-loop poles that satisfy:

dK
0
ds
Fourth step: Find the breakpoints. Express K such as:

1
K .
G s H s 
Set dK/ds = 0 and solve for the poles.
Applying Step #4
Find the breakpoints.
• Express K such as:
1
K   ss  1s  2 
G( s )H ( s )
K   s 3  3s 2  2 s
• Set dK/ds = 0 and solve for the

poles.
 3s 2  6 s  2  0
s1  1.5774 , s2  0.4226
Applying Step #4
Find the breakpoints.
• Express K such as:
1
K   ss  1s  2 
G( s )H ( s )
K   s 3  3s 2  2 s
• Set dK/ds = 0 and solve for the

poles.
 3s 2  6 s  2  0
s1  1.5774 , s2  0.4226
Recall Rule #1
• The n branches of the root locus start at the n

poles.
• m of these n branches end on the m zeros
• The n-m other branches terminate at infinity
along asymptotes.
Last step: Draw the n-m branches that terminate

at infinity along asymptotes
Applying Last Step
Draw the n-m branches that

terminate at infinity along
asymptotes

Points on both root locus & imaginary axis?
• Points on imaginary axis

satisfy:
s  j jω?
• Points on root locus satisfy:

1  KG s H s   0
• Substitute s=jω into the

characteristic equation and - jω
solve for ω.
  0 or    2
Learning by doing – Example 1
1) Sketch the root locus of the following

system:
2) Determine the value of K such that the

damping ratioSee
ζ ofclass
a pair of dominant
notes
complex conjugate closed-loop is 0.5.
Frequency Response Methods
284
Outline
• What is frequency response
• Frequency response plots
• Bode diagrams of basic factors
285
What is frequency response
So far we have described the response and performance of a

system in terms of complex frequency variable s=σ+jω and
the location of poles and zeros in the s-plane. An important
alternative approach to system analysis and design is the
frequency response method.
The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-

state response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal. We
will investigate the steady-state response of the system to
the sinusoidal input as the frequency varies.
286
When the input signal is a sinusoid, the resulting output signal for LTI systems is
sinusoidal in the steady state, it differs from the input only in amplitude and
phase.
A
Consider the system Y ( s )  T ( s ) R ( s ) with r (t )  A sin t. R( s )  L {r (t )} 
s  2
2
m( s )
If T ( s )  , where p1, p2,…,pn are distinctive poles,
( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )  ( s  pn )
then in partial fraction expansion form, we have
k1 k2 k s  
Y ( s)    n  2
s  p1 s  p2 s  pn s   2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields
 s   
y (t )  k1e  p1t  k 2 e  p2t   k n e  pnt  L -1
 2 2 
s   
Suppose the system is stable, then all the poles are located in the left half plane and
thus the exponential terms decay to zero as t→∞. Hence, the steady-state
response of the system is
 s   
lim y (t )  L -1
 2 2 
 A T ( j ) sin(t   ), where   T ( j ).
t 
s   
287
For the system Y ( s )  T ( s ) R( s ) with r (t )  A sin t ,
the steady-state output is lim y (t )  A T ( j ) sin(t   ), where   T ( j ).
t 
That is, the steady-state response depends only on the magnitude and phase of T(jω).
Advantages of the frequency response

method
 The sinusoidal input signal for various ranges of frequency
and amplitude is readily available.
 It is the most reliable and uncomplicated method for the
experimental analysis of a system.
 Control of system bandwidth.
 The TF describing the sinusoidal steady-state behaviour of
the system is easily obtained by replacing s with jω in the
system TF.
288
Frequency response plots
• Polar plot
The TF G(s) can be described in the frequency domain by
G ( j )  G ( s ) s  j  R ( )  jX ( ), where R ( )  ReG ( j ), X ( )  ImG ( j )
The above equation is used for the polar polar plane

plot representation of the frequency
response in the polar plane.
Alternatively, the TF G(jω) can be represented by

G ( j )  G ( j ) e j ( j )  G ( )  ( )
X ( )
where G ( )  R ( )  X ( ) ,  ( )  tan 1
2 2 2
R ( )
289
Frequency response plots (cont’d)
Example – polar plot
Consider a simple RC circuit. The TF of the
system is
V2 ( s ) 1
G( s)  
V1 ( s ) RCs  1
The sinusoidal steady-state TF is
1 1 1
G ( j )   , where 1 
j ( RC )  1 j  / 1   1 RC
1  j  / 1 
The polar plot is obtained from G ( j )  R ( )  jX ( ) 
 / 1 2  1
1 j  / 1 
polar plot  
1   / 1  1   / 1 
2 2
To draw the polar plot, R(ω) and X(ω) at

typical frequencies, e.g., ω=0, ∞, are to be
determined.
290
Frequency response plots (cont’d)
Limitations of polar plots:
 The addition of poles and zeros requires the recalculation of the
frequency response.
 The effect of individual poles and zeros is not indicated.
A more widely used graphical tool to plot frequency response is the Bode
diagram.
 Bode plot
The TF in the frequency domain can be written as
G ( j )  G ( )  ( )
For a Bode diagram, we normally use
Logarithmic gain in dB  20 log10 G ( )
Magnitude versus ω and phase versus ω are plotted separately.
291
Bode diagram
Advantages of Bode plots:
 Multiplication of magnitudes can be converted into addition by virtue of the
definition of logarithmic gain.
 Straight-line asymptotes are simple to be used for sketching an approximate
log-magnitude curve.
The use of a logarithmic scale for the frequency is a more judicious

choice than a linear scale of frequency as this expands the low
frequency range, which is more important in practical systems.
An interval of two frequencies with a
ratio equal to 10 is called a decade.
The slope of the asymptotic line in the
figure is -20dB/decade.
292
Bode diagram of constant gain K
For a generalised TF, Q
K  (1  j i )
G ( j )  i 1
 
M R
( j ) N  (1  j m )  1  ( 2 k / nk ) j  ( j / nk ) 2
m 1 k 1
there often exist four basic factors, i.e.,

 Constant gain K
 Poles (or zeros) at the origin (jω)
 Poles (or zeros) on the real axis (jωτ+1)
 Complex conjugate poles (or zeros) [1+(2ζ/ωn)jω+(jω/ωn)2]
We will determine the Bode diagram for each of these factors.

Bode diagram of constant gain K
The logarithmic gain is a horizontal line on the Bode diagram,
20 log K  constant in dB
and the phase angle is
 ( )  0
293
Bode diagram of poles (or zeros) at the
origin (jω)
The log magnitude of a pole at the origin 20 log
1
 20 log  dB
j
is
The phase angle of 1/jω is constant and equal to -900, i.e.,  ( )  900
The slope of the magnitude curve is -20dB/decade for the pole at the
origin. For a multiple pole at the origin, the log magnitude is
1
20 log  20 N log  dB
 j N
and the phase is  ( )  90 0
N
The log magnitude of a zero at the origin is 20 log j  20 log  dB
and the phase angle is
 ( )  90
0
Bode diagram of
(jω)±N
294
Bode diagram of poles (or zeros) on the real axis
1
The log magnitude of (1+jωτ) is 20 log
-1  20 log 1  ( ) 2
1  j
The asymptotic curve for ω<<1/τ is -10log1=0 dB, and the asymptotic
curve for ω>>1/τ is -20logωτ with a slope of -20dB/decade. The two
asymptotes intersect at the 0dB line when ω=1/τ, the break frequency
or corner frequency. The log magnitude at ω=1/τ is -10log2≈-3dB.
The phase angle of (1+jωτ)-1 is
 ( )   tan 1 
Bode diagram of
(1+jωτ)-1
The Bode diagram of (1+jωτ)

is obtained in the same
manner as that of (1+jωτ)-1.
295
1
Bode diagram of complex
( j )conjugate
 2 ( j )  poles
 (or zeros)
2
n
2
n
The normalised form of a pair of complex conjugate poles can be written as

 1
G ( )  1  j 2u  u 2 , where u   / n
The log magnitude is 20 log G ( )  10 log(1  u 2 ) 2  4 2 u 2 
and the phase angle is  2u 

 ( )   tan 1  2 
1 u 
When u<<1, the log magnitude is -10log1=0 dB, and the phase angle approaches
00. When u>>1, the log magnitude approaches -10log(u 4)=-40logu, which results in
a curve with a slope of -40dB/decade. The phase angle, when u>>1, approaches -
1800. The magnitude asymptotes meet at the 0dB line when
u   / n  1.
296
Bode diagram of complex conjugate poles
(or zeros) (cont’d)
The magnitude asymptotes intersect at the 0dB line when u=ω/ωn=1.
asymptotes for
1  j 2u  u 
2 1
,
where u   / n
297
Bode diagram of
[(1+(2ζ/ωn)jω+(jω/ωn)2]-1
The difference between

the actual magnitude
curve and the asymptotic
approximation is a
function of ζ. The max
value of the frequency
response occurs at the
resonant frequency, ωr.
When ζ→0, ωr→ ωn.
298
The resonant frequency ωr is
determined by taking the derivative
of the magnitude of
1  j 2u  u 
2 1
, where u   / n
with respect to u, and setting it equal

to zero. The resonant frequency is
r  n 1  2 2 ,   0.707
and the max value of the magnitude

of |G(ω)| is

M P  G (r )  2 1   2  ,   0.707
1
299
Minimum phase transfer function
A TF is called a minimum phase TF if all its zeros lie in the
left hand s-plane. It is called a nonminimum phase TF if it
has zeros in the right hand s-plane.
The meaning of the term minimum phase becomes clear
from the following example. Suppose z,p>0, the TF
G1(s)=(s+z)/(s+p) has no zero in the right hand s-plane, but
TF G2(s)=(s-z)/(s+p) has a zero in the right hand s-plane.
The frequency response curves can be evaluated for real
frequency s=jω on the s-plane (with ω varying along jω-axis).
Thus,
sz j  z sz j  z
G1 ( j )   G2 ( j )  
s p s  j
j  p s p s  j
j  p
300
sz j  z sz j  z
G1 ( j )   G2 ( j )  
s p j  p s p s  j
j  p
s  j
The amplitude characteristics of G1(jω) and G2(jω) are the same as

can be seen from 2  z2
G1 ( )  G 2 ( ) 
2  p2
However, the phase characteristics of G1(jω) and G2(jω) are
different because
1 ( )   j  z    j  p   1   2 2 ( )   j  z    j  p   1*   2
Phase
characteristics
for minimum
phase &
nonminimum
phase TF
301
Asymptotic
curves for basic
factors
302
Example of drawing the Bode diagram
The Bode diagram of a TF G(s), which contains several poles

and zeros, is obtained by adding the plot due to each
individual pole and zero. For example, the TF of interest is
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

The factors involved are:
1. A constant gain at K=5
2. A pole at the origin
3. A pole at ω=2
4. A zero at ω=10
5. A pair of complex conjugate poles at ω=ωn=50
303
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

We plot the magnitude characteristic for each factor in the TF.
1. The constant gain is 20log5=14dB.
2. The magnitude of the pole at the origin is a straight line with a slope
of -20dB/dec and intersecting the 0dB line at ω=1.
3. The magnitude asymptote of the pole at ω=2 has a slope of
-20dB/dec beyond the break frequency ω=2.
4. The magnitude asymptote of the zero at ω=10 has a slope of
20dB/dec beyond the break frequency ω=10.
5. The magnitude asymptote for the complex poles is -40dB/dec
beyond the break frequency ω=ωn=50. But the actual magnitude
differs from this approximation as ζ=0.3.
304
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

The total asymptotic magnitude can be plotted by adding the
asymptotes due to each factor, as shown by the solid line in the
figure. We can also obtain the curve directly by plotting each
asymptote in order as frequency increases.
The magnitude characteristic of the given TF is shown in the figure.
305
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50
2

The phase characteristic can be obtained by adding the phase due to
each factor in the TF.
1. The phase of the constant gain is 00.
2. The phase of the pole at the origin is a constant -900.
3. We use the linear approximation of the phase characteristic for the pole
at ω=2, where the phase shift is -450 at ω=2.
4. We use the linear approximation of the phase characteristic for the zero
at ω=10, where the phase shift is 450 at ω=10.
5. The phase characteristic for the complex poles is obtained from the
known graph for ζ=0.3.
Phase
characteristic
When ω=46, the phase

angle is -1800.
306
Summary of the example of drawing the
Bode diagram
We have drawn the approximate Bode diagram for the TF
5(1  j 0.1 )
G ( j ) 

j (1  j 0.5 ) 1  j 0.6( / 50)   j / 50 
2

by finding the asymptotic magnitude and phase of each factor.
Although the magnitude and phase curves are approximate, they
give us good indication of important frequency ranges. After plotting
these approximate curves, we can use the equations to find the
exact magnitude & phase within a relatively small frequency range,
e.g., we are interested in the frequency at which the phase angle is -
1800. From the Bode diagram, this occurs when ω=46. Using the
equation  ( )  900  tan 1   tan 1   tan 1  2u   1750
1 2
1 u 
  46 2
where  1  0.5, 2  0.1, u   / n   / 50
So there is an error of 50.

307
• Stability
Nyquist criterion
309
Stability
• Transfer functions
GH ( s ) L( s )
T (s)  
1  GH ( s ) I  L( s )
– Poles
1  L s   0
T (s ) 
– For stability, need poles of closed loop system

Im s
in OLHP x x Unstable
x Re s system
Stable system x x
x x
s-plane
310
• Open Loop transfer function is ratio of
polynomials
ns
L s  
d s 
 Closed loop characteristic equation:

ns
1  L s   1  0
d s
 d


s 

ns   0
 
Characteristic
Polynomial
 d s   ns   0
    
Characteristic
Polynomial
311
• How can you determine stability?
– Direct computation of poles
• Compute characteristic polynomial
• Solve for roots (polynomial equation)
– Routh-Hurwitz test
– Root locus
1  kL  s   0
• Can also be useful for design
– Nyquist analysis
312
Nyquist Criterion
• Interested in roots of
1 L s  0 
– Want them to be in OLHP
• Note: L(s) is analytic
– Differentiable almost everywhere
– Poles are isolated
Im s
x
Re s
x
313
• Property of analytic functions
– Consider a simple closed curve in s-plane
Im s
o
Re s
o x
o
Total change in angle is 2p x

P  #poles of L  s  in curve
Z  #zeros of L  s  in curve
difference of zeros and poles
L  s   2  Z  P 
314
• Apply to characteristic equation
1  L s  0
   Im s
H s D
1  L s  0 jR
  
H s
R
Return difference
Re s
Nyquist
D-contour
-jR
315
• For now, assume no poles/zeros of H(s) on jw-axis
• Define Closed loop poles of the
system
Z D  #zeros of H  s  in D
PD  #poles of H  s  in D
1
ND  H  s  RHP poles of the
# times H
circles origin
2 loop transfer function
 Principle of the argument

N D  Z D  PD Z D  N D  PD
316
• Principle of the argument Closed loop poles of the
system
– Define
Z D  #zeros of H  s  in D
PD  #poles of H  s  in D
# times H
ND 
1
2
H s D   RHP poles of the
loop transfer function
circles origin
– Then Z D  N D  PD
Number of closed loop poles in ORHP =
Number of open loop poles in CRHP +
Change in argument of H around D-contour
317
Nyquist Criterion
• Are all poles/zeros included in D-contour?
Im s
jR3
Radius of circle is
R3 arbitrary
jR2 x
o
jR1
o x
R2 Re s
x o x o
R1
o x
-jR1
o x
-jR2
-jR3
318
• Graphical view of H along D-contour
– For each s (complex number) H is a complex
number
H  s   Re H  s   j Im H  s 
– Along D-contour
     
Im s
H s D  Re H s D  j Im H s D jR
R
Locus of points
   
Re s
– Plot Im H s D vs. Re H s D
jR
319
Im s
jR
– Partition D-contour into Re s
• jw-axis  Semi-circle of radius R

j  
s  j  R    R s  R e     jR
2 2
– Plot
Single Point:
1
Im H  j  vs. Re H  j  R    R

Im H R e j
 vs. Re H  R e 
j
2


 

2
– If strictly proper deg n  s   deg d  s 
H Re  j
 1
R 
320
Im H  j  vs. Re H  j 
N  # clockwise (CW) encirclements of 0
Z NP
Im s Im H
 Suppose P=0
N 2
Re s Re H
Z  N  P
1
 2 0  2
Z  N P
s-plane  20 2
321
• More common to use L (rather than H)
H s   1  L s  L s   H s   1
– Locus of H encircles 0  locus of L encircles -1
– Plot Im L  j  vs. Re L  j 
– Define N  # clockwise (CW) encirclements of  1
Im s Im H Im L
Re s Re H Re L
1 -1 0
s-plane
322
Nyquist Criterion
P  # open loop CRHP poles of L  s 
N  # CW encirclements of  1 by locus L s D  
• Then the closed loop system is stable if and
only if
 
– The locus L s does not pass through -1 ; and
D
– N  P
Note: This is the same as:
# CCW encirclements = # RHP open loop poles
323
• Evaluate encirclements graphically
L s 
Im L
Im s w<0
Re s Re L
0
s-plane w>0
Im L
Re L
-1 0
N = # CW crossings of green line
- # CCW crossings of green line
324
• Example
k
L s 
s 1
k  j  1 k  j  1
L  j    L  j   
j  1  j  1 j  1  j  1
k 1  j  k 1  j 
 
2
1  1 2
 1    1  
 k   j  k   j
2 2  2 
1  1   1  1 2 
k  j  1
L  j   
j  1  j  1
 
k 1  j 
1 2

 k 
1
 j
 
2 
k   j 1 
2
1 1 
L  j   
j  1  j  1
k 1  j 
 
1  2

 k 
1
 j
 

1 2 1 2
– Note: 
2 2 Circle centered at ½
 1 1    1 with radius ½
     
1 2 2  1 2  4
325
• Nyquist locus
Im L – Stable?
1 RHP open loop pole
P 1
 Need
k/2 N  1
-k Re L
-1 -1 -k/2 0
1 CCW encirclement
Þ N = -1
Þ Stable
0 CCW encirclement
Þ N=0
Þ Unstable
k 1  k  1k  1  k  1
326
• Alternatives
k
L s 
s 1
– Characteristic equation
k
0  1  L s   1 
s 1
s 1 k  0
• Pole In OLHP iff
s  1 k k 1
– Root locus Im s
k=1 Re s
x
1
327
• What if
2k
L s  
s  s  1 s  2 
– Poles: Im s
Re s
x x x
-2 -1 0
Singularity
328
• Nyquist D-contour for systems with poles
on jw-axis
  0
Im s Im L
0
R
r Re s    Re L
x x x
-2 -1 0
0
  0
– How to get from top to bottom?

• What happens on little circle
• What happens when r0?
329
Gain and Phase Margins
Let ARc be the value of the open-loop amplitude ratio at the critical frequency . Gain
margin GM is defined as:
ωc
1
GM  (14-11)
ARc
Phase margin PM is defined as
PM  180  φ g (14-12)
• The phase margin also provides a measure of relative stability.
• In particular, it indicates how much additional time delay can be included in the
feedback loop before instability will occur.
• Denote the additional time delay as .
• For a time delay of , the phase angle is θ max.
θ max θ max ω 330
Figure 14.9 Gain and
phase margins in Bode
plot.
331
 180 
PM = θ max ωc  (14-13)
  
or
 
 PM    
θ max =  
(14-14)
ω
 c   180 
where the
 /180   converts PM from degrees to radians.
factor
• The specification of phase and gain margins requires a compromise between

performance and robustness.
• In general, large values of GM and PM correspond to sluggish closed-loop responses,
while smaller values result in less sluggish, more oscillatory responses.
Guideline. In general, a well-tuned controller should have a gain margin between 1.7
and 4.0 and a phase margin between 30° and 45°.
332
Figure 14.10 Gain and phase margins on a Nyquist plot.
333

Control Theory Slides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Control Theory Slides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Control Systems

Text book: K. Ogata Modern control Engineering. 5 th edition

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 1

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 2

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 3

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 4

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 5

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 8

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 9

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 10

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 11

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 12

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 13

From the point of view of stability, the open-loop

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 14

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 16

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 17

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 19

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 22

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 23

• Solving linear differential equations

• Obtaining transfer functions

• Converts many functions into algebraic functions of s

• Converts LDEs into algebraic equations of s

• Use graphical techniques for predicting a system performance with out

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 24

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 25

2.f(t) is of exponential order as t approaches infinity. A function f(t) is said to be of exponential

approaches zero as t approaches infinity.

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 26

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 27

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 31

• However, the inversion integral is

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 33

. In this case, the Laplace transform must be in

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 34

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 35

• where A(s) and B(s) are polynomials in s. In the

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 37

and if the inverse Laplace transforms of F1(s),

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 38

Case 1: F(s) has all non repeated

Case 3: F(s) has repeated poles.

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 39

-z1,-z2,…-zm are the zeros of F(s)

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 40

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 41

ht   8e4 t  18e9t ut 

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 43

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 44

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 45

• Equate the coefficients of equals powers

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 49

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 50

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 51

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 52

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 53

If the pair of poles are imaginary, then

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 54

• Consider the following F(s):

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 55

• In solving linear, time-invariant, differential

1. By taking the Laplace transform of each term in

DR. Ibrahim Al-Abbas 63