GENETICS

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 What is Gene?
• Genes is a short segment
of DNA that is considered
a unit of heredity
• To understand the
mechanisms of inheritance
of genes, we must learn
genetic
• Genetics is the science of
heredity and variation in
living organisms

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3’-5’: CACCAGATCAGGAC 4
5’-3’: GTGGTCTAGTCCTG
 Why do children so often
resemble their parents?

genes
=it's a function of the
that they have in common
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To understand how gene being inherited, we
need to know these…

1. The Chromosomes
2. Cell Division
3. DNA
4. Genes
5. Alleles
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1. Chromosomes
• All organisms have a
Number of
characteristic number Organisms chromosomes
of chromosomes in
their body cells
Homo sapiens (human) 46
• Chromosomes were
known to contain DNA Mus musculus
40
(house mouse)
with genes
Canis familiaris
78
(domestic dog)

Gallus gallus (chicken) 78

Zea mays (corn) 20

Cavia porcellus
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(guinea pig)
= A chromosome is a long
strand of DNA, packaged
together with proteins (e.g
histones) and other kinds of
CHROMOSOME
molecules 8
Structure of chromosome…
• Centromeres hold
duplicated
chromosomes together
before they are
separated in cell division
• When DNA makes
copies of itself before
cell division, each half of
the chromosome is
called a sister chromatid
• Telomeres are the ends
of chromosomes which
are important in cell
aging 9
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• Mus musculus • Homo sapiens
(House mouse) (Human)

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Human chromosome…

• 2 types of
chromosomes:
– A sex chromosome
(XX or XY)
– 22 pairs of
autosomes
• sex chromosome:
– Female have two X
– Male have one X and
one Y

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Sex chromosome

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Sex chromosome

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2. Cell division
• Cell division is the process by
which cells produce new cells
that also duplicating
chromosomes
• Cell division differs in
prokaryotes (bacteria) and
eukaryotes (protists, fungi,
plants, & animals)
• Binary fission is a method of
cell division in prokaryotes
(cell with no nucleus)
• Mitosis and Meiosis are
methods of cell division in
eukaryotes (cell with 15
nucleus)
• From Topic 1:

What is cell division?

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Cell • Cell division is the process
by which any cells produce
division new cells
• Cell division differs in
prokaryotes (bacteria) and
eukaryotes (protists, fungi,
plants, & animals), where:
– Binary fission is a
method of cell division in
prokaryotes (cell with no
nucleus)
– Mitosis and Meiosis are
methods of cell division
in eukaryotes (cell with
nucleus) 19
 Why cells divide?

• For body growth

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 Why cells divide?

• To replace cells

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 Why cells divide?

• For reproduction

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All divides
by
Binary
fission

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KIpcCyuypzg

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Eukaryotic cells,
divides by
Mitosis / meosis 26
 Reproduction and cell division

• Asexual reproduction: • Sexual reproduction:

– Mitosis (eukaryotes) – Meiosis; makes sex cells
– Binary fission (sperm/ovum)
(prokaryotes) – Mitosis; cell division after
fertilisation 27
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 Mitosis (links)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c1wcWjr79OQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L61Gp_d7evo
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZeW8HaCUtOQ
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l21p3gsECGM
•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f7Dmhfo7XXA
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEejivHRIbE (salamander mitosis)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeUANxFVXKc (Cancer: Unregulated Cell Division)

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Some phases of mitosis
Of a plant cells

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1

3
2

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Stages of mitosis…
3
1 2

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All of our cell (human) has the same number of 46
chromosomes in almost every cell, except for….

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 All of our cell (human) has the same number of 46
chromosomes in almost every cell, except for
sperm/egg cells

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84jlwjvrJwY
 Meiosis
(sex cell division)

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 Significance of meiosis
• An essential process in all sexually reproducing
animals
• Meiosis show crossing over, resulting in
genetic recombination (genetic code changes)

• Maintain diploidity of zygote

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 46
chromosomes 46
chromosomes

46
chromosomes

46
chromosomes

23
chromosomes

23
chromosomes

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3. DNA
(Instruct the cells on what to do)
= There are instructions from
chromosomes that tells the cell on
what role it will play in the body of
organisms
= These instructions are in the form
of a molecule called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
= DNA is not alive. It can stick
around for thousands of years
= The DNA molecule looks like a
twisted ladder (alpha helix
shape) 39
=DNA is
contained in
coiled packets chromosomes

of
chromosomes
(in the nucleus
of every cell)

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 A chromosome is a long strand of DNA, packaged
together with proteins (e.g histones) and other kinds
of molecules 41
• DNA is made from strand of
nucleotides
• A Nucleotide - consists of a
phosphate group, sugar and
a base
• There are four type of bases:
A (for adenine), C (for
cytosine), T (for thymine) and
G for guanine
• The DNA twisted ladder
(alpha helix shape) is
consists of two nucleotide
strands joined by weak
chemical bonds between the
two bases forming base
pairs
• A base pair is a step on the
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ladder of the DNA
• These bases always pair up in the following way:
– A..T
– C…G
• A single strand of DNA is made of letters, for
example:
ATGCTCGAATAAATGTGAATTTGA
• The letters make words, for example:
ATG CTC GAA TAA ATG TGA ATT
TGA
• The words make sentences:
<ATG CTC GAA TAA> <ATG TGA ATT
TGA>
• These "sentences" are called genes. Genes tell
the cell to make other molecules such as proteins43
 DNA replication = Copying DNA
• Soon before the cell divides (during
interphase), DNA MUST makes a copy of itself
so that it can be transfers this to the new cell
• When DNA makes copies of itself before cell
division, each half of the chromosome is called a
sister chromatid
• DNA consist of bases pair as adenine-thymine
(A-T), and guanine –cytosine (G-C), forming
genetic codes
• The specific base pairing of A-T G-C also allows
the DNA structure to be replicated
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DNA molecule

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• The genetic
code is passed
to new DNA
when DNA
replicates

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• Remember in earlier slides, the DNA twisted
ladder (alpha helix shape) is consist of two
nucleotide strands joined by weak chemical bonds
between the two bases forming base pairing of
A-T, G-C
A T

C G

T
A

G C

• if a single strand of DNA is made of letters, for

example:
ATGCTCGAATAAATGTGAATTTGA
• Then the other side of the DNA strand would be? 48
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 DNA codes may change after Meiosis
• In mitosis, the DNA and the unique genetic code
of the original cell is preserved (new cell DNA
exactly the same genetic codes with the
original) in each of two daughter cells
• However in meiosis, each of four gametes ends
up with half the amount of DNA as the original
cell, with different genetic codes between each
other and with the original. The codes also
changes during synaptic events in prophase I
• This difference allows organisms to create
various unique offspring
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sperms
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4. Genes
• Genes are a length of DNA that contains
instructions ("codes") for making a specific protein
• Through these proteins, genes influence almost
everything about an organism, for example:
– how tall we will be
– how we respond to infections, etc
• Not all the genes are "switched on" in making
proteins within every cell. (remember the ‘stop’
code?)
• The genes (genetic codes) of an organism
genome can be passed to their offspring when
they reproduce 53
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DNA molecule

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The process of ‘reading’ the genes codes during DNA replication
produces new DNA (in mitosis/meiosis) and protein synthesis

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• There are
approximately
20,000 genes in the
DNA of a human
cell
• This complete set of
genes is called a
genome
• The sequence of
the bases is
different for
everyone, which
makes each of us
unique
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 • Alleles are two forms
5. Alleles of genes
• It is any DNA codes
(genes) occupying a
same location on a
chromosome
• Alleles may alter or
affects the particular
characteristic of an
organism
• Dominant allele is
gene that often
shows up less
• Recessive allele is
gene that shows up
Allele + Allele  genes! less often
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 Allele
(with thousand of genes) (Representing gene traits)

EE

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Imagine:
a GENOME as a Book
In the human book there are 23 chapters
called CHROMOSOMES

Each chapter contains several thousand

sentences called GENES. Different forms
of a gene are called ALLELES

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Dominant
vs
Recessive
traits in
Humans

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Sex chromosome

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Sex chromosome

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 Pre-Test 1:
07.09.2023 (Thursday)
online via Putra Blast
10.15 – 10.30am @ MB1/MB2
Test 1:
14.09.2023 (Thursday)
online via Putra Blast,
10 – 11am @MB1/MB2
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Terima Kasih

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