Problem 3.

Discuss the theories of catalysis and

also mention the industrial
applications of catalysts.
 [I] Theories of Catalysis
 Many theories have been put forward to explain the catalytic
activity of catalyst. A few important theories are given below:
 1. Intermediate Compound Formation Theory
 According to this theory, a catalyst first combines with one of the
reactants to form an intermediate compound of activity greater than
that of the reactants.
 This intermediate compound then reacts with another reactant to
form the product and so gives back the catalyst.
 If A and B are two reactants and C is a catalyst, then according to this
theory.

 This theory can be fully explained by the following examples :

 (1) In the oxidation of SO2 by air, NO which acts as a catalyst, first in
the oxidation of SO2 by air, NO which acts as a catalyst, first combines
with oxygen to form NO (intermediate compound) which oxidises SO 2
and gives back nitric oxide.
 (2) In the formation of ether from alcohol, H2SO4 which is used as
catalyst first forms an intermediate compound C 2H5HSO4.

 (3)Formation of methyl benzene, C6H5CH3 by reaction between

benzene (C6H6) and methyl chloride (CH3CI) using anhydrous
aluminium chloride. AICl3, as catalyst (Friedel-Craft's reaction).
 (4) Thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate (KClO 3) in the
presence of manganese dioxide (MnO2).

 It
may be noted that the actual isolation of intermediate compounds
which would prove their existence is very difficult.
 As already stated, by their very nature they are unstable.
 In general, the intermediate compounds suggested as being formed
are usually possible rather than proved.
 2. Adsorption Theory or Modem Theory of
Heterogeneous Catalysis
 Adsorption theory explains the mechanism of a reaction between
two gases catalyzed by a solid (heterogeneous or contact catalysis).
 According to this theory, the catalyst acts by adsorption of the
reacting molecules on its surface.
 Generally speaking, four steps can be put forward for heterogeneous
surface. catalysis.
 For example, for the following reaction
The steps are as follows:
 Step 1. Adsorption of reactant molecules. The reactant
molecules A and B strike the catalyst surface. They are held up at
the surface by weak Vander Waals forces (physical adsorption)
or by partial chemical bonds (chemisorption).
 Step 2. Formation of activated complex. The particles of the
reactants adjacent to one another Join to form an intermediate
complex (A - B). The activated complex is unstable. It has only a
fleeting existence.
 Step 3. Decomposition of activated complex. The activated
complex breaks to form the products C and D. The separated
particles of the products are held to the catalyst surface by partial
chemical bonds.
 Step 4. Desorption of products. The particles of the products are
desorbed or released from the surface. They are stable and can
lead to an independent existence

Figure: Mechanism of contact catalyst.

 The mechanism of contact catalysis may vary in details,
depending on the nature of the reactants.
 Consider the example of hydrogenation of ethene in presence of
nickel.
 In this case, ethene adds hydrogen in the presence of nickel as a
catalyst to yield ethane.
The catalyst functions according to the following
steps.
 Step 1 . Adsorption of hydrogen molecules. Hydrogen molecules
are adsorbed on the nickel surface due to the residual valence
bonds of the nickel atoms.
 Step 2. H-H bonds are broken. The H-H bond is smaller (0.74
A0) than Ni-Ni bond. Therefore, the H-H bond of the adsorbed
hydrogen molecule is stretched and weakened. The weakened
bond breaks, separating the hydrogen atoms. The separated
hydrogen atoms are held to the nickel surface by chemical bonds.
 Step 3. Decomposition of the activated complex. The
chemisorbed hydrogen atoms then attach to ethene molecule by
partial chemical bonds. Therefore, unstable activated complex is
formed.
 Step 4. Decomposition of the activated complex and desorption
of ethane molecule. The unstable activated complex decomposes
to form ethane molecule. The freed catalyst surface is again
available for further action.
Figure: Mechanism of the hydrogenation of ethene on nickel surface
 The adsorption theory explains the catalytic activity as
follows:
 (1) Metals in a state of fine sub-division or colloidal form are rich
in free valence bonds and hence they are more efficient catalysts
than the metal in lumps.
 (2) A promoter increases the valence bonds on the catalyst surface
by changing the crystal lattice and thereby increasing the active
centers.
 (3) Catalytic poisoning occurs because the so-called poison blocks
the free valence bonds on its surface by preferential adsorption or
by chemical combination.
[II] Industrial Applications of Catalysts
 The presence of a catalyst is very useful in many industrially
important reactions, which are either very slow or take place at a
very high temperature.

Figure: Sub-division of a catalyst makes it more efficient due to the

increase of free valence bonds.
 Hence to decrease the cost of production it is essential to make use
of a suitable catalyst.
A few important examples of heterogenous catalytic
reaction of industrial applications are given as follows:
THANK YOU