3.4 Genetic Information, Variation and Relationships Between Organisms

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at/gikt2
3.4 Genetic information, variation and relationships

between organisms
Access this file @ shorturl.at/gikt2
3.4.1 DNA, genes and chromosomes
In prokaryotic cells, DNA molecules are short, circular and not associated with proteins. In the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells, DNA molecules are very long, linear and associated with proteins, called histones. Together a
DNA molecule and its associated proteins form a chromosome. The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic
cells also contain DNA which, like the DNA of prokaryotes, is short, circular and not associated with protein. A gene
is a base sequence of DNA that codes for: • the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide • a functional RNA
(including ribosomal RNA and tRNAs). A gene occupies a fixed position, called a locus, on a particular DNA
molecule. A sequence of three DNA bases, called a triplet, codes for a specific amino acid. The genetic code is
universal, non-overlapping and degenerate. In eukaryotes, much of the nuclear DNA does not code for
polypeptides. There are, for example, non-coding multiple repeats of base sequences between genes. Even within
a gene only some sequences, called exons, code for amino acid sequences. Within the gene, these exons are
separated by one or more non-coding sequences, called introns.
The concept of the genome as the complete set of genes in a cell and of the proteome as the full range of proteins
that a cell is able to produce. The structure of molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) and of transfer RNA (tRNA).
Transcription as the production of mRNA from DNA. The role of RNA polymerase in joining mRNA nucleotides. • In
prokaryotes, transcription results directly in the production of mRNA from DNA. • In eukaryotes, transcription
results in the production of pre-mRNA; this is then spliced to form mRNA. Translation as the production of
polypeptides from the sequence of codons carried by mRNA. The roles of ribosomes, tRNA and ATP. Students
should be able to: • relate the base sequence of nucleic acids to the amino acid sequence of polypeptides, when
provided with suitable data about the genetic code • interpret data from experimental work investigating the role of
nucleic acids. Students will not be required to recall in written papers specific codons and the amino acids for
which they code.
DNA structure
In small groups design a lesson to teach
others about the structure of DNA using
the spec on the previous slide.
Recap Quiz Learning
Kahoot? Objective
Keywords
Transcription and Translation Learning
Objective
Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Key points Learning
The genetic code is… Objective
Non-overlapping - Base triplets do not share bases. IT reduces the
chance of miscoding.
Degenerate - Some triplets code for the same amino acid (64
possible triplets and 20 a.a plus stop/start codons)
Universal - The same specific base triplet codes for the same aa in
Keywords
every living thing.
Splicing removes introns from pre-mRNA to for mRNA containing

only exons for translation.
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
3.4.3. Meiosis and Genetic Variation Learning
Gene mutations involve a change in the base sequence of chromosomes. They can arise
spontaneously during DNA replication and include base deletion and base substitution. Due to Objective
the degenerate nature of the genetic code, not all base substitutions cause a change in the
sequence of encoded amino acids.
Mutagenic agents can increase the rate of gene mutation. Mutations in the number of
chromosomes can arise spontaneously by chromosome non-disjunction during meiosis.
Meiosis produces daughter cells that are genetically different from each other.
The process of meiosis only in sufficient detail to show how:
• two nuclear divisions result usually in the formation of four haploid daughter cells from a
single diploid parent cell
• genetically different daughter cells result from the independent segregation of homologous
Keywords
chromosomes
• crossing over between homologous chromosomes results in further genetic variation among
daughter cells.
Students should be able to:
• complete diagrams showing the chromosome content of cells after the first and second meiotic division,
when given the chromosome content of the parent cell
• explain the different outcome of mitosis and meiosis
• recognise where meiosis occurs when given information about an unfamiliar life cycle
• explain how random fertilisation of haploid gametes further increases genetic variation within a species.
GCSE Recap Learning
Objective
Mitosis Meiosis
To explain how
Number of DNA
meiosis leads to
replications variation.
Number of cell
division
Keywords
Number of
daughter cells Haploid
Function Diploid
Segregation
Number of Chromosomes
chromosomes in
humans
Gametes Learning
Gametes contain a haploid number of chromosomes (n) until Objective
fertilisation.
Two gametes fuse to form a zygote which divides by mitosis to form To explain how
an embryo. meiosis leads to
variation.
During fertilisation any sperm can fertilise any egg. Therefore
fertilisation is random.
This produces zygotes with different combinations of chromosomes

to their parents. Keywords
Haploid
Diploid
Segregation
Chromosomes
Meiosis Learning
Objective
To explain how
meiosis leads to
variation.
Keywords
Haploid
Diploid
Segregation
Chromosomes
Creating variation Learning
1. Crossing over. Objective
During Meiosis 1 the homologous pairs of chromosomes pair up. To explain how
The twist around each other and swap over bits of chromatids. meiosis leads to
variation.
Keywords
Haploid
Diploid
Segregation
Chromosomes
Creating variation Learning
2. Independent Segregation of Chromosomes Objective
Each homologous pair comes from 1 maternal and 1 paternal To explain how
chromosome. When they pairs are separated in meiosis 1 the meiosis leads to
division is completely random. This “shuffling” leads to variation in variation.
any potential offspring.
Keywords
Haploid
Diploid
Segregation
Chromosomes
Task Learning
Objective
To explain how
meiosis leads to
variation.
Keywords
Haploid
Diploid
Compare mitosis and meiosis. (5)
Segregation
Chromosomes
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
3.4.4 Genetic diversity and adaptation Learning
Genetic diversity is the number of different alleles of genes in a population.
Objective
Genetic diversity is a factor enabling natural selection to occur.
The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations.
• Random mutation can result in new alleles of a gene.
• Many mutations are harmful but, in certain environments, the new allele of a gene might
benefit its possessor, leading to increased reproductive success.
• The advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation.
• As a result, over many generations, the new allele increases in frequency in the population.
Directional selection, exemplified by antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and stabilising
Keywords
selection, exemplified by human birth weights.
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment. These
adaptations may be anatomical, physiological or behavioural.
Students should be able to:
• use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a population of
a species
• interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations
• show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and
contribute to the diversity of living organisms.
Mutations Learning
Substitution Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATTCCT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
What effects could this cause? selection
Keywords
Selection
Population
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Substitution Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATTCCT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
- The wrong amino acid is coded for Keywords

- An intron is coded for Selection
- The same amino acid is coded for
Population
- The wrong amino acid is coded for but it has no effect e.g. it
doesnt affect the active site of the protein Allele
- All the other amino acids are coded for correctly (if no more Stabilising
mutations)
Mutations Learning
Deletion Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATCCT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
Keywords
Selection
Population
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Deletion Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATCCT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
- A change in the amino acid being coded for Keywords

- A change in all subsequent triplets - a frame shift
Selection
- Depending on where it happens the protein could become
Population
completely non-functional or only slightly altered.
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Other types… Objective
Investigate how
variation leads
Inversion, duplication, addition and translocation - but more about
to natural
that at A2. selection
Keywords
Selection
Population
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Addition Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATGTCCT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
What issues could this cause? selection
- A change in the amino acid being coded for Keywords

- A change in all subsequent triplets - a frame shift
Selection
- Depending on where it happens the protein could become
Population
completely non-functional or only slightly altered.
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Inversion Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ACCGTT Investigate how
variation leads
to natural
Two breaks in a stretch of DNA and the repair mechanism flips the selection
DNA before putting them back together. Essentially, the sense and
non-sense strands are swapped.
Keywords
Selection
It usually results in a
non-functioning protein. Population
Allele
Stabilising
Mutations Learning
Duplication Objective
Eg ATGCCT becomes ATGATGCCT Investigate how
variation leads
The sequence, whole gene, part of a gene or even chromosome is
to natural
added more than once. selection
This is important for variation.
- The repeated gene could mutate whilst the original continues Keywords
to make viable proteins
- The genes are free to mutate and might not cause any harm Selection
Population
Allele
Therefore duplications can be a mechanism in natural selection
Stabilising
and evolution.
Mutations Learning
Translocation Objective
The base sequence is removed and added at a different loci. Investigate how
variation leads
This can lead to tumors if the translocation occurs on a proto-
to natural
oncogene (regulate cell growth). selection
Keywords
Selection
Population
Allele
Stabilising
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Identify which type of mutation has occured Learning
Original sentence - THE OLD MEN SAW THE LAD Objective
- THE OLD HEN SAW THE LAD -

- THE LDM ENS AWT HEL AD -
- THE OLD SAW THE LAD MEN -
- THE OLD OLD MEN SAW THE LAD -
- THE COL DME NSA WTH ELA - Keywords
Identify which type of mutation has occured Learning
Original sentence - THE OLD MEN SAW THE LAD Objective
- THE OLD HEN SAW THE LAD - substitution

- THE LDM ENS AWT HEL AD - deletion
- THE OLD SAW THE LAD MEN - translocation
- THE OLD OLD MEN SAW THE LAD - duplication
- THE COL DME NSA WTH ELA - addition Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Summary Learning
Mutations can be harmful, neutral or beneficial. Objective
- They can lead to advantages to an individual and lead to Investigate how
natural selection. variation leads
- Some can increase the chances of cancer e.g. BRCA1 to natural
selection
This is especially true for diploid organisms who essentially have a

Keywords
‘backup’ chromosome for each gene.
Selection
Population
Mutations are caused at random and spontaneously.
Allele
Stabilising
Passing it on Learning
Somatic Cell Mutation Objective
If mutations happen in body cells they cannot be passed to Investigate how
offspring. variation leads
to natural
selection
Germ Line Mutations
Keywords
Mutations that happen when forming gametes can be passed on Selection
to the fertilised egg (if it is the egg/sperm that is successful).
Population
Allele
Stabilising
Mutagenic agents Learning
Some mutations happen spontaneously, but mutagenic agents Objective
increase the chance of these occurring.
Investigate how
variation leads
- UV radiation to natural
- selection
Ionising radiation (x-rays, gamma rays)
- Chemicals
- Viruses Keywords
Selection
Population
Mutagens can cause the DNA molecules to break or change atomic Allele
arrangement in a section of the DNA. Stabilising
- This can be mended by ligase but it may result in a mutation.
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Chromosome Mutations Learning
Gene mutation change the base sequence but chromosome mutations Objective
change whole blocks of genes.
Investigate how
Sometimes meiosis goes wrong. variation leads
Sometimes chromosomes wont split from their homologous pairs - this is to natural
called non-disjunction and leads to uneven numbers of chromosomes. selection
This can cause genetic disorders like Down’s Syndrome (extra copy of
chromosome 21).
Keywords
Selection
Population
Allele
Stabilising
3.4.4 Genetic diversity and adaptation Learning
Genetic diversity as the number of different alleles of genes in a population. Genetic diversity
Objective
is a factor enabling natural selection to occur.
The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations. Investigate how
• Random mutation can result in new alleles of a gene. variation leads
• Many mutations are harmful but, in certain environments, the new allele of a gene might
benefit its possessor, leading to increased reproductive success. to natural
• The advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation. selection
• As a result, over many generations, the new allele increases in frequency in the population.
Directional selection, exemplified by antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and stabilising selection,
exemplified by human birth weights. Keywords
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment. These
adaptations may be anatomical, physiological or behavioural.
Selection
Students should be able to: Population
• use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a population of
a species
Allele
• interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations Stabilising
• show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and
contribute to the diversity of living organisms.
GCSE Recap Learning
The diagram below shows changes in the foot bones of four ancestors of modern horses over the past Objective
50 million years.
(a) Describe two changes to the bones in the feet of horses that have Investigate how
taken place over the past 50 million years. (2) variation leads
(b) Eohippus lived in swampy areas with soft mud.
Since this time the ground in the habitat has become drier and harder.
to natural
All of the horse ancestors were preyed upon by other animals. selection
(i) Explain one advantage to Eohippus of the arrangement of bones in its feet.
(2)
(ii) The changes in the arrangement of the foot bones of horses support Darwin’s theory of evolution by
natural selection. Keywords
Explain how the arrangement of the foot bones of Eohippuscould have evolved into the arrangement of the
foot bones of Equus. Selection
(4)
Population
Allele
Stabilising
GCSE Recap Learning
a) any two from: Objective
• larger / longer / thicker allow examples eg fewer toes or bones fused
• fewer (bones in total) allow smaller surface area touching the ground Investigate how
• fewer bones touching the ground
2
variation leads
(b) (i) large(r) surface / area in contact with the ground Or low / less pressure on ground to natural
1 selection
(so) less likely to sink into mud / ground or (so) could run fast(er) allow easy / easier to escape
predators
1
(ii) variation (in size / number / arrangement of bones allow mutation(s) (in size / number /
Keywords
arrangement of bones)
1
Selection
(and) those with large(r) / few(er) bones more suited to running or run faster (on harder / drier Population
ground)
1 Allele
these survive and breed allow ref to offspring for breed
1 Stabilising
(so) genes / DNA (for larger / fewer bones) passed on allow alleles passed on
1
Access this file @ https://goo.gl/RPU9kk
Variation Learning
Variation is the differences in phenotypes between individuals. Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
Individuals of the same species will show intraspecific variation. change in a
populations and
how this can lead
Look around the room… to evolution
Keywords
Intraspecific variation is determined by both genetic and Selection
environmental factors. Prediction
Gametes
Although individuals have the same genes… we have different

alleles and varied combinations of alleles.
Variation Learning
Genetic diversity as the number of different alleles of genes in a Objective
population. Genetic diversity is a factor enabling natural selection to Explain how allele
occur. frequencies
Mutation change in a
populations and
- Changes in the DNA base sequence leads to production of new
how this can lead
alleles. to evolution
Keywords
It can also be caused by…
Selection
Meiosis Prediction
- Through the crossing over of chromatids and independent Gametes
segregation
Random fertilisation
- During sexual reproduction
Variation Learning
Another source of variation is environment… Objective
● Food Explain how allele
● Climate frequencies
change in a
● Lifestyle populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
REMEMBER… Only genetic variation can result in natural
selection. Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Evolution Learning
Evolution is the change of allele frequency over time. Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
This can occur by change in a
populations and
how this can lead
- Natural Selection to evolution
- Genetic Drift
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Evolution by Natural Selection Learning
1. Selection Pressures Objective
(Predation, disease, competition) - struggle for survival. Explain how allele
2. Intraspecific Variation frequencies
(Random mutation can result in new alleles of a gene that is a change in a
benefit to survival) populations and
3. Better adapted survive how this can lead
4. ... reproduce more successfully to evolution
5. … and pass on their alleles that are inherited by the next generation Keywords
Selection
As a result, over many generations, the new allele increases in frequency Prediction
in the population. Gametes
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their
environment. These adaptations may be anatomical, physiological or
behavioural.
Evolution by Natural Selection Learning
There are three different types of natural selection… Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
1. Stabilising change in a
2. Directional populations and
3. Disruptive how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Evolution - Natural Selection Learning
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Evidence for Natural Selection Learning
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Questions Learning
Objective
Explain how allele
frequencies
change in a
populations and
how this can lead
to evolution
Keywords
Selection
Prediction
Gametes
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Chi-Squared (Χ2)
Learning Objectives:
Learn what Chi-squared is and how to solve it
Complete a Chi-squared test on given data
Karl Pearson 1857 – 1936
• He was an English mathematician
who created the worlds first
university statistics department at
UCL.
• He was offered a OBE and a
knighthood – he refused both
• He contributed to a lot of statistical
analysis and his ideas underpin
todays statistical methods.
Null Hypothesis
• The Chi-squared test can be used to prove or disprove a null
hypothesis
• A null hypothesis clearly states that there will be no significant
difference between two sets of data (e.g. observed and
expected)
• Therefore the Chi-squared test can either prove this – there is
no significant difference; or disprove this – there is significant
difference
Write a definition of a null hypothesis

Significance/confidence level
• More commonly known as the 95% confidence level
• This is the probability that the results were created by chance
• Less than 5% (0.05) is what you are aiming for when you want
to prove your null hypothesis
• This means you are more than 95% sure that the data is
significant and did not happen by chance
Write a definition of the 95% confidence level

Degrees of freedom
• The number of variables that are free to change
d.f = number of categories (n) - 1
Red flowers Pink flowers Yellow flowers
45 160 95
• For this example there are three categories

• Therefore the degrees of freedom = 3 – 1 = 2
Write a definition of degrees of freedom

Your value for Chi-squared will be checked against this table to see if it is
significantly confident
Degrees of Freedom Probability, p
0.99 0.95 0.05 0.01 0.001
1 0.000 0.004 3.84 6.64 10.83
2 0.020 0.103 5.99 9.21 13.82
3 0.115 0.352 7.82 11.35 16.27
4 0.297 0.711 9.49 13.28 18.47
5 0.554 1.145 11.07 15.09 20.52
6 0.872 1.635 12.59 16.81 22.46
7 1.239 2.167 14.07 18.48 24.32
8 1.646 2.733 15.51 20.09 26.13
9 2.088 3.325 16.92 21.67 27.88
10 2.558 3.940 18.31 23.21 29.59
11 3.05 4.58 19.68 24.73 31.26
12 3.57 5.23 21.03 26.22 32.91
13 4.11 5.89 22.36 27.69 34.53
14 4.66 6.57 23.69 29.14 36.12
15 5.23 7.26 25.00 30.58 37.70

Chi-squared
•
Step one: create a null hypothesis
The ratio of male to female students in the Science Faculty is
exactly 1:1, but in the Pharmacology Honours class over the past
ten years there have been 80 females and 40 males. Is this a
significant departure from expectation?
We are told that there are equal numbers of males and females
in the Science Faculty, so we might expect that there will be
equal numbers of males and females in Pharmacology
Step two: draw out this table
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
(O)
Expected numbers
(E)
O-E
(O-E)2
(O-E)2 / E
Step three: add in the observed numbers
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
(E)
O-E
(O-E)2
(O-E)2 / E
Step four: add in expected numbers
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
60 60 120
(E)
O-E
(O-E)2
(O-E)2 / E
We know that there are 120 students on the course, our null hypothesis
states that it is in a 1:1 ratio of males to females
Step five a: Observed – Expected
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
60 60 120
(E)
O-E 20 -20 0
(O-E)2
(O-E)2 / E
• This should always be zero

Step five b: Yates correction
• If there is only one degree of freedom there is inaccuracies
with the values of Chi-squared
• Therefore in this example you need to apply the Yates
correction
• Subtract 0.5 from the value of O-E
• An "O-E" value of +5 becomes +4.5, and an "O-E" value of -5
becomes -4.5
• Yates correction only applies when we have two categories
(one degree of freedom)
Step six: square the last set of values
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
60 60 120
(E)
(O – E)-0.5 19.5 -19.5 0
((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25
((O-E)-0.5)2/ E
Step seven: Divide by the expected
Female
number
Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
60 60 120
(E)
(O – E)-0.5 19.5 -19.5 0
((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25
((O-E)-0.5)2/ E 6.338 6.338

Step eight: add these two values – this is
Chi-squared
Female Male Total
Observed numbers
80 40 120
(O)
Expected numbers
60 60 120
(E)
(O – E)-0.5 19.5 -19.5 0
((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25
((O-E)-0.5)2/ E 6.338 6.338 12.676 = X2

Your value for Chi-squared will be checked against this table to see if it is
significantly confident
Degrees of Freedom Probability, p
0.99 0.95 0.05 0.01 0.001
1 0.000 0.004 3.84 6.64 10.83
2 0.020 0.103 5.99 9.21 13.82
3 0.115 0.352 7.82 11.35 16.27
4 0.297 0.711 9.49 13.28 18.47
5 0.554 1.145 11.07 15.09 20.52
6 0.872 1.635 12.59 16.81 22.46
7 1.239 2.167 14.07 18.48 24.32
8 1.646 2.733 15.51 20.09 26.13
9 2.088 3.325 16.92 21.67 27.88
10 2.558 3.940 18.31 23.21 29.59
11 3.05 4.58 19.68 24.73 31.26
12 3.57 5.23 21.03 26.22 32.91
13 4.11 5.89 22.36 27.69 34.53
14 4.66 6.57 23.69 29.14 36.12
15 5.23 7.26 25.00 30.58 37.70

• Is your null hypothesis proven or disproven
with more than 95% confidence level?
Required practical 6: Use of aseptic techniques Learning

Objective
to investigate the effect of antimicrobial
substances on microbial growth.
Keywords
Risk assessment Learning
Objective
Risk Hazard Precautions
Use aseptic
technique to
investigate
variation in
bacteria
Keywords
Aseptic
Agar
Pipette
Safety
∙ Bunsen burners will be used – yellow flame when not in use, long hair
must be tied up, safety glasses should be worn.
∙ Ethanol is used to clean inoculating loops – this is HIGHLY
FLAMMABLE and should be kept away from Bunsen burners.
∙ Whilst a “safe” strain of E.coli is used, there is always the possibility of
mutation, and therefore desks and equipment must be properly sterilised
afterwards, and students must wash their hands with soap.
∙ If agar plates are completely sealed, hazardous anaerobic bacteria may
grow. Therefore, agar plates must be closed with 4 small pieces of sticky
tape.
∙ Do not open the plates once the bacteria have multiplied – diameter of
zone of inhibition must be measured on closed plates.
∙ Once zones of inhibition have been measured, desks should be
disinfected and hands washed with soap.
Equipment and materials

∙ Sterile agar plate ∙ Bunsen burner
∙ Sterile E.coli culture solution ∙ Heat proof mat
∙ Sterile pipette ∙ Disinfectant
∙ Antibiotic discs or mast ring ∙ Cotton wool
∙ Sterile spreader ∙ Separate large beaker of
disinfectant
∙ Sterile tweezers ∙ Pen to label agar plate
∙ Ethanol ∙ Sticky tape
Key Points
1. What was the purpose of passing the neck of the E.coli culture container through a
blue Bunsen flame?
2. Why wasn’t the agar plate lid completely sealed with tape?
3. Why are the agar plates incubated upside down?
4. What might be a control experiment for this investigation? Explain what it would
prove?
5. Why did you produce a lawn plate over a streak plate?
6. Why is the culture incubated at 25 C not 37 C?

Examine your plate and try to identify the colonies which have
not been able to grow near the Multodisk arm(s). These are
called zone(s) of inhibition. Turning the plate upside down
and using a ruler measure the diameter of the zones of
inhibition. Calculate the area of the zone of inhibition using
the formula
Area of zone = πr2 (Use 3.14 as )

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1-dEJN6RkFVIJbCMP4TEiyTOVlFGVUG5q/view?usp=sharing
Complete exam Questions for revision.

Species and Taxonomy Learning
Two organisms belong to the same species if they are able to produce fertile Objective
offspring.
Explain how
Courtship behaviour as a necessary precursor to successful mating. The role of organisms are
courtship in species recognition. grouped into
A phylogenetic classification system attempts to arrange species into groups based taxonomic
on their evolutionary origins and relationships. It uses a hierarchy in which smaller systems
groups are placed within larger groups, with no overlap between groups. Each
group is called a taxon (plural taxa). One hierarchy comprises the taxa: domain,
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. Keywords
Each species is universally identified by a binomial consisting of the name of its Speciation
genus and species, eg, Homo sapiens. Recall of different taxonomic systems, such as Taxon
the three domain or five kingdom systems, will not be required. Hierarchy
Students should be able to appreciate that advances in immunology and genome Phylum
sequencing help to clarify evolutionary relationships between organisms. Genus

How many species are there? Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
How many living species are named? Genus
What proportion are Plants? Insects? Mammals? Fungi?
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
How many living species are named? ~ 2 million Genus
What proportion are Plants? Insects? Mammals? Fungi? 3500 types of beetle in
Great Britain. 6.5 million on land. Vertebrates make up the smallest part.
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
There could be up to 28 million species still to uncover. Genus
What is a species? Learning
Members of the same species can breed Objective
successfully to produce fertile offspring. Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
How do the animals know if they’re the same
taxonomic
species or not?
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Courtship behaviour Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
- Each sequence is unique to the species Objective
- Only a ‘correct’ performance will result in attempted mating Explain how
- It is an essential part of species recognition organisms are
grouped into
- taxonomic
Bumble bees release pheromones to attract female bumble bees
- systems
Red deer roar to attract females
- Blue-foot boobies perform a dance
- Fireflies give off pulses of light Keywords
- Crickets use sound a bit like morse-code
Speciation
Taxon
Fruit Fly Hierarchy
Boobies Phylum
Genus
Because each courtship behaviour is unique to the species. Scientists can use the Objective
behaviour to classify organisms. Explain how
The closer related a species - the more similar their courtship behaviour will be. organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Mules Learning
Some species can Objective
interbreed to produce Explain how
offspring. organisms are
But they will not be grouped into
fertile. taxonomic
systems
Horses have 66
chromosomes, donkeys Keywords
have 62. Speciation
Taxon
Where are mules Hierarchy

infertile? Phylum
Genus
Species Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
Two organisms belong to the same grouped into
taxonomic
species if they are able to produce systems
fertile offspring. Keywords

Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Defining Species Learning
Objective
However…
Explain how
- Some species of plant breed asexually - can they interbreed? organisms are
- Some organisms live far away - if given the opportunity, could grouped into
they breed successfully? taxonomic
- Some species are extinct so we have no way of testing if they systems
could breed successfully
Keywords
So what can we do then? Speciation
Taxon
- Look at similarities and differences
Hierarchy
- Biochemical Tests
Phylum
- Genetic Tests
Genus
→ Phylogeny
Phylogeny Learning
Objective
The study of the evolutionary history of groups of Explain how
organisms. organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Phylogeny Learning
Objective
Phylogenetic trees shows us how closely related Explain how
species are with one another. organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Taxonomy Learning
Objective
The science of classification. Grouping organisms together to show
Explain how
evolutionary relationships. organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
There are 8 levels called taxa (a single group is a taxon).
systems
The groups are arranged in a hierarchy - in which smaller groups are
placed within larger groups, with no overlap between groups.
Keywords
Speciation
Created by Carl Linnaeus in the 18th Century. Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Taxonomy Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Do Kangaroos Prefer Cake Or Frosting, Generally Speaking? Hierarchy
Phylum
Does Katy Perry Claim O****** Feel Good Sometimes? Genus
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Binomial Naming System Learning
Objective
All organisms are given an internationally accepted Explain how
Latin name of two parts; organisms are
grouped into
Genus species. taxonomic
systems
Capital letter for Genus, lower case for the species. Keywords
In italics or underlined if handwritten. Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Binomial Naming System Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Extra reading - tautonyms

What came first… the Chicken or the Egg? Learning
Objective
Explain how
organisms are
grouped into
taxonomic
systems
Keywords
Speciation
Taxon
Hierarchy
Phylum
Genus
Variation and Biodiversity
To investigate the causes of variation

and explain how variation can be
quantified.
Shoe Sizes Learning
Write your shoe size (ignoring any ½ sizes) on the post it note and Objective
pass it to the front. To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Shoe Sizes Learning
Objective
To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Deviation
Mean
What causes this variation? Learning
• Environmental differences Objective
• Food supply? To investigate
the causes of
• Tight Shoes? variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Keywords
• Genetic Differences
Variation
• Mutations Standard
• Meiosis causing mixing of alleles Deviation
• Fertilisation Mean
Intraspecific – Within one species
Types of Variation Learning
Interspecific – Between Objective
different species To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Continuous – Numerical data Keywords

Categoric – Types or categories (Cat / Dog) that can be any value (height, Variation
(Blonde / Ginger)
mass)
Standard
Deviation
Discontinuous – Numerical data that can be Mean
whole numbers only (number of leaves)
Sampling Learning
It is rarely possible to measure every individual in a population. A Objective
sample must be taken instead. A good sample is representative of To investigate
the population – however it is not always easy to get a the causes of
variation and
representative sample. explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Sampling Bias – Investigators may deliberately or otherwise bias
their sample Keywords
e.g. avoiding sampling areas of a field because there is a bull in Variation
that area or a patch of nettles. Standard
Deviation
Mean
Chance – by sheer chance it may be that all biology students in
this class have small (or large) feet.
Reducing the error Learning
Random Sampling – Using random numbers to generate Objective
coordinates to investigate removes bias. To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
Large Sample Size – The larger the sample the less effect chance quantified.
will have and a better representation you will have.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Analysis of data – Using statistical methods to tell you if chance is Deviation
likely to be a factor. Mean
Calculating Standard Deviation Learning
Objective
To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Standard Deviation
Keywords
Variation
1. Sum of (X-mean)2
Standard
2. Divided by number of x -1 Deviation
3. Then square root Mean
Normal Distribution Learning
Symmetrical about the Objective
mean To investigate
the causes of
variation and
68% lie within ± 1 S.D. explain how
variation can be
95% lie within ± 2 S.D. quantified.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Most data in biology is Deviation
normally distributed. Mean
Normal Distribution Learning
Objective
To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Calculate the mean and S.D. for the classes
Learning
heights Objective
To investigate
the causes of
variation and
explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Standard Deviation
Keywords
Variation
● Sum of (X-mean)2
Standard
● Divided by number of X - Deviation
1 Mean
● Then square root
Calculate the mean and S.D. for the classes
Learning
heights Objective
To investigate
the causes of
variation and
Height (m)= explain how
variation can be
quantified.
Keywords
Variation
Standard
Deviation
Mean
Bar Graphs with S.D. Learning
Bar graphs of means should have ± Objective
S.D. bars added to them at AS level. To investigate
the causes of
variation and
If the S.D. bars overlap then the explain how
difference in the means is likely to be variation can be
quantified.
due to chance.
Keywords
In this example even though it looks Variation
like F2W food gives a bigger size of Standard
fish the S.D. bars overlap so this is Deviation
Mean
probably down to chance.
Biodiversity
To calculate a diversity index as a

measure of biodiversity
Biodiversity Learning
Species diversity: the number of different species and the number Objective
of individuals of each species within any one community. To calculate a
diversity index
Genetic diversity: the variety of genes possessed by individuals as a measure of
biodiversity
that make up any one species
Ecosystem diversity: the range of different habitats within a Keywords

particular area Species
Habitat
Diversity
Species Diversity Learning
Can be used to measure biodiversity Objective
To calculate a
Two components: diversity index
as a measure of
● Number of different species in a given area (species richness)
biodiversity
● The proportion of the community that is made up of an
individual species
Keywords
Species
Habitat
Diversity
Measuring species diversity
Species found Number in habitat X Number in habitat Y
A 10 3
B 10 5
C 10 2
D 10 36
E 10 4
No. of species 5 5
No. of individuals 50 50
Measuring species diversity Learning
The table on the previous slide does not show us much about the Objective
differences in the two habitats. To calculate a
diversity index
In both cases the number of species and individuals are the same as a measure of
biodiversity
If we now calculate species diversity, then we get a different

picture. Keywords
Species
Habitat
Diversity
Measuring species diversity Learning
Objective
d= N(N-1) To calculate a
Σn(n-1) diversity index
as a measure of
biodiversity
Where:
d = species diversity index
Keywords
N = total number of organisms of all species
Species
n = total number of organisms of each species
Habitat
Σ= sum of
Diversity
Calculation Learning
Calculate the species diversity index of each habitat from the table. Objective
d= N(N-1) To calculate a
Σn(n-1) diversity index
as a measure of
biodiversity
Species found Number in habitat X Number in habitat Y
A 10 3 Keywords
B 10 5
Species
C 10 2 Habitat
D 10 36 Diversity
E 10 4
No. of species 5 5
No. of individuals 50 50
Species n in habitat X n(n-1) n in habitat Y n(n-1)
A 10 3
B 10 5
C 10 2
D 10 36
E 10 4
Σn(n-1) Σn(n-1)
Species n in habitat X n(n-1) n in habitat Y n(n-1)
A 10 10(9)=90 3 3(2)= 6
B 10 10(9)=90 5 5(4)= 20
C 10 10(9)=90 2 2(1) = 2
D 10 10(9)=90 36 36(35)= 1260
E 10 10(9)=90 4 4(3)= 12
Σn(n-1) 450 Σn(n-1) 1300
Use this to calculate the species diversity index

Calculation Learning
Now we can calculate the species diversity index: Objective
Habitat X To calculate a
d = 50x(49) = 2450 = 5.44 diversity index
as a measure of
450 450 biodiversity
Habitat Y
d = 50x(49) = 2450 = 1.88
Keywords
1300 1300
Species
Habitat
The higher the value, the greater the species diversity.
Diversity
Therefore Habitat X has greater species diversity than habitat
Y.
SAPS ecology online Learning
http://www.saps.org.uk/secondary/teaching-resources/768-ecology- Objective
practical-abundance-diversity-and-random-sampling
Keywords
Impact of agriculture Learning
Natural ecosystems develop from Objective
complex communities To calculate a
diversity index
Agricultural ecosystems are as a measure of
carefully controlled by humans biodiversity
Any form of farming reduces

Keywords
biodiversity
Species
Monoculture- only farming one Habitat
single crop/breed. Diversity
Impact of agriculture Learning
Farmers select crops that are more productive. Objective
To calculate a
The frequency of alleles is reduced diversity index
as a measure of
biodiversity
For economic reasons, the crop yield needs to be large.
Keywords
Any one area can only support a certain amount of biomass – if
most of this area is taken up by a crop, then there is little area left Species
for anything else Habitat
Diversity
• Crops are sprayed with pesticide and manmade fertiliser.
• This further disadvantages and excludes species that the
farmer does not want
• This all acts to reduce species diversity
Impact of deforestation Learning
Forests contain many varied Objective
and different habitats = high To calculate a
species diversity diversity index
as a measure of
biodiversity
Permanent clearing of the
forest leads to loss of habitats
and in turn loss of biodiversity Keywords
Species
What might you want to clear a Habitat
forest for? Diversity
What can we do? Learning
-Margins left around fields for ‘weeds’ to grow. Objective
- Stubble left in the winter for birds etc. To calculate a
- Hedges planted for habitats for insects and birds. diversity index
as a measure of
- Care with fertilisers to avoid leaching biodiversity
- Care with stock densities to avoid overgrazing
- Use sustainable companies that invest in forestation projects.
Keywords
Species
Habitat
Diversity
HIPPO Learning
Write a reply letter to an agriculturalist who has asked for help Objective
with conservation of species diversity. To calculate a
diversity index
Include explanations for your suggestions. as a measure of
biodiversity
Include examples of conservation aware companies and their
strategies.
Suggest how they can monitor species diversity. Keywords
Reference your research. Species
No more than 2 sides, Habitat
Diversity
Learning
Objective
Keywords
Classification Using DNA or Proteins Learning
- Genome Sequencing Objective
- Comparing amino acid sequences Investigate how
- Immunological comparisons advances in genome
sequencing and
- Gene technologies immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Genome Sequencing Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
The genome is the entire base sequence for an organism's DNA. sequencing and
immunology aids
Using this you can compare the organism’s base sequence with classification
anther and see how closely related they are.
Keywords
Humans and Chimps share around 94% of their DNA base Immunology
sequence
Sequence
Humans and Mice - 86% Evolutionary
Amino Acid Sequencing Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
Amino acid sequence is coded for by the DNA sequence - sequencing and
immunology aids
therefore species with similar amino acid sequences have similar classification
DNA base sequences and are therefore more likely to be closely
related.
Keywords
Immunology
A good example AQA use is Cytochrome C protein - used in
respiration and common in all living organisms. Sequence
The closer the amino acid sequence for Cytochrome C protein - Evolutionary
the closer the DNA sequence - the closer related the species are
likely to be.
Immunological Comparisons Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
Similar proteins will bind to the sequencing and
immunology aids
same antibodies to form a classification
precipitate.
Keywords
The more antibodies that bind -
Immunology
the more precipitate formed -
the closer related the species. Sequence
Evolutionary
Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Learning
Objective
Investigate how
advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Using Gene Technology Learning
You can also use DNA sequencing to look at genetic diversity Objective
within a population rather than just observing physical Investigate how
similarities/ differences or behaviours. advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Using Gene Technology Learning
You can also use DNA sequencing to look at genetic diversity Objective
within a population. Investigate how
advances in genome
sequencing and
immunology aids
classification
Keywords
Immunology
Sequence
Evolutionary
Revision Learning
Objective
Keywords
HIPPO - Print and bring CAH 5a Biochem to complete next lesson

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3.4 Genetic Information, Variation and Relationships Between Organisms

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3.4 Genetic Information, Variation and Relationships Between Organisms

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3.4 Genetic information, variation and relationships

Splicing removes introns from pre-mRNA to for mRNA containing

This produces zygotes with different combinations of chromosomes

- The wrong amino acid is coded for Keywords

- A change in the amino acid being coded for Keywords

- A change in the amino acid being coded for Keywords

- THE OLD HEN SAW THE LAD -

- THE OLD HEN SAW THE LAD - substitution

This is especially true for diploid organisms who essentially have a

Although individuals have the same genes… we have different

Write a definition of a null hypothesis

Write a definition of the 95% confidence level

• For this example there are three categories

Write a definition of degrees of freedom

2 0.020 0.103 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 0.115 0.352 7.82 11.35 16.27

4 0.297 0.711 9.49 13.28 18.47

5 0.554 1.145 11.07 15.09 20.52

6 0.872 1.635 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 1.239 2.167 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 1.646 2.733 15.51 20.09 26.13

9 2.088 3.325 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 2.558 3.940 18.31 23.21 29.59

11 3.05 4.58 19.68 24.73 31.26

12 3.57 5.23 21.03 26.22 32.91

13 4.11 5.89 22.36 27.69 34.53

14 4.66 6.57 23.69 29.14 36.12

15 5.23 7.26 25.00 30.58 37.70

• This should always be zero

((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25

((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25

((O-E)-0.5)2/ E 6.338 6.338

((O-E)-0.5)2 380.25 380.25

((O-E)-0.5)2/ E 6.338 6.338 12.676 = X2

2 0.020 0.103 5.99 9.21 13.82

3 0.115 0.352 7.82 11.35 16.27

4 0.297 0.711 9.49 13.28 18.47

5 0.554 1.145 11.07 15.09 20.52

6 0.872 1.635 12.59 16.81 22.46

7 1.239 2.167 14.07 18.48 24.32

8 1.646 2.733 15.51 20.09 26.13

9 2.088 3.325 16.92 21.67 27.88

10 2.558 3.940 18.31 23.21 29.59

11 3.05 4.58 19.68 24.73 31.26

12 3.57 5.23 21.03 26.22 32.91

13 4.11 5.89 22.36 27.69 34.53

14 4.66 6.57 23.69 29.14 36.12

15 5.23 7.26 25.00 30.58 37.70

Required practical 6: Use of aseptic techniques Learning

Equipment and materials

3. Why are the agar plates incubated upside down?

6. Why is the culture incubated at 25 C not 37 C?

Area of zone = πr2 (Use 3.14 as )

Complete exam Questions for revision.

sequencing help to clarify evolutionary relationships between organisms. Genus

Where are mules Hierarchy

fertile offspring. Keywords

Extra reading - tautonyms

To investigate the causes of variation

Continuous – Numerical data Keywords

To calculate a diversity index as a

Ecosystem diversity: the range of different habitats within a Keywords

If we now calculate species diversity, then we get a different