Seeds

Development, Dispersal, Dormancy

and Germination
 Seed Formation
• Pollination
• Double fertilization
 Seed Formation
• A seed consists of
– A dormant plant embryo
– A food reserve
– A protective coat
• Each fertilized ovule develops into a seed
• Endospermous seeds
– the food reserve is outside the embryo as triploid
endosperm e.g. rice, maize
• Non-endospermous seeds
– the food reserve is within the leaves of the plant embryo
e.g. broad beans, peas
 Seed Formation (contd)
• Embryo sac and ovule grow ~ 500 times bigger
• Triploid endosperm nucleus divides by mitosis
to form endosperm
• The endosperm (3n) is a food rich tissue which
nourishes the developing plant embryo
• The diploid plant embryo is formed by mitosis
and cell division of the diploid zygote
 Seed Formation (contd)
• Embryo stops growing and becomes dormant
• It loses up to 90% of its water
• The micropyle closes
• Hard protective coat (testa) forms from the
integuments
• A seed has formed
 Fruit formation
• A fruit is a fertilised, ripened, ovary of a flower
which contains the seeds.
• The fruit protects the seed and helps in
dispersal.
• A tomato is a true fruit, so is a grape.
• The inner area of an apple or a pear is a fruit,
which is contained within the outer sweet
flesh
• This outer area is a “false fruit” or swollen
receptacle.
 Seedless Fruit

• Some are seedless varieties, and this is due to

genetics
– oranges: pollination occurs but fertilisation
doesn’t occur
– bananas: fertilisation occurs but seeds don’t
develop
• Spraying with plant growth regulators
– Auxin can stimulate fruit formation without
fertilisation
 Seed Dispersal

• Dispersal is the transfer of a seed away from

the parent plant
• Reasons for dispersal
– Avoids competition with each other and parents
– Finding new areas to colonise
– Increases chances of survival of larger numbers of
plants
 Wind Dispersal

• Tiny light seeds

– e.g. Orchids
• `Parachutes’ for increased air travel time
– e.g. Dandelion, Thistle
• Fruit with wings
– e.g. Sycamore
 Water dispersal

• Air-filled fruits which can float

• Large distances can be covered
• Seeds can travel by river and streams
– e.g. Water lilies
• Seeds can even travel on the open sea to
other land masses
– e.g sea-beans, coconuts
 Animal Dispersal

• Animals can travel long distances

• Animals often live in places where seeds can
germinate (e.g. underground)
• 2 types of Fruits
a) Hooked or barbed fruits e.g. Burdock,
goose grass
b) Edible fruits e.g. Tomato, Blackberry,
Acorns
 Self Dispersal

• Explosive structures, catapults etc.

• Examples:
– Peas
– Gorse
– Poppies
 Dormancy
• Dormancy is a resting period when seeds
undergo no growth and have reduced
cell activity or metabolism, even though
the environmental conditions are
suitable for growth.
 Causes of Dormancy

• Growth inhibitors in the outer parts of the

seed
• Testa is too thick to allow water or oxygen in.
• Growing embryo can’t get out during
germination because the testa is too tough.
• A lack of growth regulators promoters
(auxins).
 Breaking Dormancy
• Sometimes dormancy is broken by soaking or
scraping
– softens or breaks the testa
• Often a cold period is needed to break dormancy
– breaks down the growth inhibitors causing the
dormancy
– stimulates the production of growth promoters
• Light or warmth (e.g. in spring) may stimulate
production of growth promoters
 Advantages of Dormancy

•Allows time for seed dispersal

•Helps plant avoid winter conditions
•The plant grows during the spring and summer
months
– optimum conditions for growth
•Duration of dormancy varies
– Staggered germinations allows seed banks to
develop in the soil
 Dormancy in Agriculture
• Some seeds may need to be treated in a
certain way to break dormancy.
• Delayed and staggered germination is a
disadvantage in horticulture.
 Germination
• Germination is the start of the process of an
embryo developing into a adult plant.
• Germination is the regrowth of the embryo,
after a period of dormancy, if the
environmental conditions are suitable.
• Dormancy causes the embryo to halt its
growth.
• Germination means that this growth resumes.
 Conditions for Germination
• Water
– necessary for enzymes to work
• Oxygen
– necessary for respiration
• Suitable temperature
– necessary for enzymes to work

Dormancy must be finished and the need for light

or darkness varies from plant to plant.
 Steps in Germination
• Preparation
• Digestion
• Respiration
• Growth
• Photosynthesis
 Steps in Germination I
• Water and oxygen is absorbed through the
micropyle.
• This activates enzymes which digest
Fats → Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Starch → Sugars
Proteins → Peptides and amino acids
• The products of digestion are moved to the
embryo.
 Steps in Germination II

• Embryo undergoes rapid metabolism

fuelled by the products of digestion.
• Aerobic respiration results in the food
reserve getting used up.
• Mass of the seed drops as carbon dioxide
is produced and diffuses out of the cell.
 Stages in Germination III

• Cell growth and division

• Differentiation of cells into tissues and organs
– Root system from the radicle
– Shoot system from the plumule
• Photosynthesis begins as shoots and leaves
develop
• Finally, the mass of the seedling increases
when
rate of photosynthesis > rate of respiration