6.5.

Bolts, Studs and Screws

• A modern commercial aircraft is composed of many
individual component parts, units and assemblies.
Amongst the most numerous of these are the fasteners,
the nuts, bolts, screws and rivets, that hold the whole
thing together. In fact a Boeing 747 contains over
24,00, 000 individual fasteners of many different types and

sizes.
• The word “fastener” is used as a general term to describe
all of the various types of fastening device employed in
the construction of an aeroplane. It is necessary to use
this term because the meanings of the words “bolt” and
“screw” for instance, may be interpreted differently by
separate organisations.
• One commonly used definition says the word “bolt”
describes a threaded fastener with a plain (unthreaded)
shank portion, whilst “screw” refers to a fully threaded
item regardless of thread size, head style or material.
Another definition hold that any external wrenching (e.g.
hex drive) is a bolt, while and internally driven (e.g. slotted
or Allen socket) item is a screw.
• To avoid confusion it is
easier to use the term
threaded fastener although
'bolt' and 'screw' are often
used and are often
interchangeable.
• General
• The fastener systems discussed in this section are
standard threaded fasteners and their mating parts
(washers, nuts, locking devices etc.). The various types
of rivet, lock pin and special threaded fastener are
considered elsewhere.
• A standard fastener comprises
of a threaded portion, a head
and sometimes a plain shank
or grip. Between the shank
and the thread is a small
tapered transition zone or
lead-in and between the shank
and the head is stress
relieving fillet radius.
• A fastener will be defined by a number of parameters
which are laid down in detail in it‟s specification. These
include it‟s Thread Form, Shank Diameter, Head Style,
Grip Length, Material, Surface Finish and Locking
Facilities.
Head Style
• The design of a fastener will
be dictated by the
specification requirements and
the environment that it is
intended to operate in.
• Where a flush surface is
required, the fastener hole
may be countersunk to
accommodate the head. The
standard countersink angle is
1000 although variations do
occur.
• Flush fastener heads are provided
with a Recess Drive or “slot”. This
slot may be of one of the following
forms:
• Straight
• Radiused straight (“Hi-Torque”)
• Cruciform (cross shaped e.g.
“Philips”)
• Off set cruciform (“Torq-set”)
• Off-set three point (“Tri-wing”),
• Splined (e.g. "Torx"- six
crossed )or
• Hexagonal (Allen).
• It is important to use the correct type and size of screwdriver
or 'bit' as the wrong tool will damage the head and may
prevent successful removal of the fastener. Many fasteners
have the tool size stamped on the head.
• Cruciform (forming or
arranged in a cross ) fasteners

should be carefully identified as

Philips, Reed and Prince,
Posidrive and Torque-set
fasteners each have their own
dedicated drivers, use of the
wrong one will damage the
fastener slot and impair or
prevent removal.
 Torx is a trade name for the
hexalobular internal driving
• Tri-wing screws are easy to slot or Star head.
identify as they are the three
point slots, however, it is
important to select the correct
bit size.

• The Hexagonal socket or Allen

head is driven by a hexagonal
key sized in fractions of an
inch.
It is a standardised design
so different sized drivers will
fit fasteners from different
manufacturers.
• External Wrenching fasteners have
flats on the outer edges and may
be turned with a spanner or socket.
They are normally hexagonal (6
point) or Bi-Hex (12 point). The
head size for both types is specified
as the distance Across the opposite
Flats of the hexagon (AF) as a
fraction of an inch or metric
measurement. Therefore a 7/16
inch AF Bi-Hex socket will fit both a
7/16 inch AF hex. bolt head and a
7/16 inch AF 12 point bolt head.
• Fasteners holding parts together may be
subjected to two types of “load”. Loads
carried along the length of a fastener are
known as Tension loads whilst those felt
across the fastener are called Shear loads.
A fastener in tension will require a head
and nut of sufficient strength to spread the
load to the surrounding structure. A
fastener taking only shear loads may have
the size of the head reduced to save
weight. Most fasteners take a combination
of both loads and will be designed to carry
them with an adequate safety margin.
Grip Length
• The nominal length depends • If the item has a protruding
on the style of the fastener in head and is fully threaded
question. If the item has a the nominal length is a
plain shank and protruding
head the nominal length or
measure of the threaded
“grip” is measured from the portion.
underside of the head to the
end of the plain shank.
• If the item has a Flush head
(countersunk) the depth of the
head is included in the
nominal length or grip.
• The increments in which the
length is measured varies
between the standards
systems and must be
determined before fastener
identification can take place.
• Material:
• Materials commonly used
Like head style, the material include Alloy Steels, Corrosion
used will be dictated by the Resistant and Stainless
design requirements and Steels, Titanium Alloys, Nickel
operating environment. Chrome Alloys and Aluminium
Factors to be considered in the Alloys.
selection of fastener material
include required tensile
strength, corrosion resistance,
temperature tolerance, weight
and cost.
• Each has its own properties, • They are, however, prone to
strengths and weaknesses. cracking if exposed to certain
• For instance Titanium Alloys are solvents and are more
lighter than steel, stronger and
expensive to produce.
more heat resistant than Aluminium
Alloys, have good corrosion
resistance characteristics and are
more fatigue resistant than either of
the above.
Surface Finish
• Most materials require some sort of
coating to improve their corrosion
resistance. The coating or plating
applied will depend on both the
material and the intended
environment.
• The most common forms of
protection for aircraft fasteners
include Aluminium coating,
Anodising, Cadmium plating,
Chromium plating, Nickel-Cadmium
plating, Passivating, Phosphate
Fluoride coating and Silver plating.
• Cadmium plating is the most
common method of protecting steel
and other ferrous alloy fasteners.
• When electroplated onto a fastener
it produces a tough golden-brown
coloured coating.
• However in areas where high
temperatures occur, cadmium
causes Hydrogen Embrittlement in
the component which may lead to
it‟s failure.
• In these circumstances small
components may be Silver Plated
while other alloys must be selected
for larger parts.
• Titanium Alloys may be • Other coatings or surface
protected by any of the above treatments may be used and
coatings or may be left un- some fasteners may be
coated depending on the treated with organic coatings
intended use. such as grease, wax or paint
• Aluminium Alloy fasteners are to protect them in transit.
usually Anodised. This is an
electrochemical process which
produces a film of oxidised
material on the surface which
protects the item from further
corrosion.
Critical Bolted Joints
• Many bolted joints on aircraft
are regarded as being critical
to the integrity of the structure.
• To ensure the quality of the
joint is acceptable, the
tolerances of both bolt and
hole are carefully controlled.
• Bolts of this kind are referred
to as Close Tolerance bolts
and they are normally installed
into reamed holes.
• Close Tolerance bolts are
identified by a number of
different markings, it is,
however, fasteners are
selected by part number and
installed as instructed, with
reference to the Approved
Technical Publications.
• If the hole has become
elongated or has worn larger
than the diameter of the bolt,
the whole purpose of the close
tolerance concept has been
destroyed. Reference must be
made to the Structural Repair
Manual but repair will normally
involve replacement by a
similar fastener with an
oversized shank. Oversizes
are normally available in 1/64"
increments.
• Holes for close tolerance bolts
may require special
preparation. For instance
certain holes require Cold
Working, a process where the
hole is broached with a tool of
specific diameter. This
compresses the material
around the hole, improving
fatigue resistance. If the hole
has to be oversized, this
process may have to be
repeated.
Nuts
General
•Fasteners have to mate with a female thread
form.
•This may be a threaded hole in a structure or
component or, more frequently, a nut.
•Like fasteners, nuts come in all shapes and
sizes, made from many different materials.
•It is therefore important to select replacement
nuts by part number from the Illustrated Parts
Catalogue.
• Standard nuts are hexagonal in shape and
are usually the same size across flats as a
bolt of the same thread size.
• Often they are symmetrical, but some have
an enlarged bearing surface on one side
and so must be used the right way up,
these are sometimes referred to as Engine
nuts.
• Nuts are normally six to ten threads deep
but thinner light weight versions are
available for shear applications.
• Many are provided with locking facilities
which include wire locking holes and split
pin slots.
• Some nuts have a plain raised portion to
accommodate the slots without
compromising the screw thread, these are
referred to as Castellated nuts.
• Bi-hex or twelve-point nut are often used
and these are of a smaller diameter than
their hexagonal counterparts and are thus
lighter.
• Wing nuts are used in non-structural
applications where a quick release is
required. The wing may be drilled for wire
locking.
• Pal nuts are light weight pressed steel nuts
of various designs which contain only a
partial thread and are usually used for non-
structural purposes.
Stiffnuts
• Stiffnuts are commonly used in the
aerospace industry and have an element
or feature which increases the friction
between the nut and its mating part to
prevent loosening caused by vibration.
• The most common methods are 'thread
disruption' where part of the thread is
distorted radially or axially, and the 'insert'
type where the fastener has to cut a thread
in a plastic or fibre insert.
• In order to check the effectiveness of the
friction element of a small diameter stiffnut,
it is general practice to turn the nut onto its
mating thread by hand. If it is possible to
pass the thread through the friction
element by hand, then the locking is
unsatisfactory. However, certain
manufacturers specify acceptable limits of
“in-built‟ or frictional torque for various
thread types and sizes and in these
instances each stiffnut should be checked
with a torque wrench before re-use.
Oddie Stiffnut
• The top of this nut is counterbored, slotted
vertically and depressed inwards to form a
circle of six tongues with the diameter
slightly smaller than the bolt thread core
diameter. As the nut installed the threads
of the bolt displace the tongues upwards,
and a load is applied to the contacting
thread faces.
• Philidas Stiffnut
• Aerotight Stiffnut
This nut is made with a circular crown in
This nut is made with a circular crown
which two slots are cut, one above the
which is slotted across the diameter and
other with an arc of about 270°. The wings
also on each side through an arc of 150°.
are displaced downward thus providing
The resultant wings are depitched and
locking tension.
forced inwards, thus causing a sideways
as well as downwards tension on the bolt
threads.
Nyloc Stiffnut
• This nut is counterbored at the top and
spun over to retain a nylon insert, the
insert is not threaded and has an internal
diameter slightly less than the diameter of
the bolt to which it is fitted. On assembly,
the bolt displaces the nylon in forming a
thread, and a high friction value is set up
between the load carrying sides of the
thread in contact with the nylon. They may
be used only once and are not suitable for
hot locations.
Nyloc Cap Nut
• Similar to the Nyloc nut but incorporates a
nylon insert in cap form to seal the end of
the bolt or screw to which the nut is fitted.
A cap nut is used for special applications,
such as in pressurised cabins, fuel and oil
tanks etc., when leakage or seepage along
the bolt thread is undesirable.
Kaylok
• This nut is pressed from sheet steel and is
both light and strong. The rear portion of
the threaded 'tube' is deformed to produce
an ellipse. The mating thread will
overcome the distortion but the resilience
of the nut will maintain a grip on the bolt.
These nut have the additional advantage
that an internal Kaynar socket can be used
in areas of restricted access.
Light weight Stiffnut
• Like the Kaylok the top of this nut is
distorted to an oval shape. When the nut is
screwed on to the bolt, the top of the nut is
forced to assume the round shape of the
bolt and thus provides a locking device.
When the nut is removed from the bolt it
assumes its original shape.
• Care must be taken not to reject these
stiffnuts as unserviceable due to the
distortion which is an integral feature of
their design.
• The term Lightweight is used because this
type of stiffnut has the equivalent strength
of larger nuts with the same thread
diameter. They are available in both hex
and bi-hex form.
Anchor Nuts
• Anchor nuts are stiffnuts which are
retained (either fixed or floating) on a plate
which is riveted to the structure to provide
a blind attachment. Where more than one
nut is attached to a plate they are referred
to as Strip nuts.
Clip nuts
• Clip nuts are self locking threaded
elements retained by a spring steel clip
housing. When slid over the edge of a thin
flange, a small spring section centres it in
the fastener hole.
Clinch Nuts
• Clinch Nuts have an unthreaded spigot
which is swaged into the attachment hole
in sheet metal to retain them.
Sheet Spring Nuts
• These nuts are used with standard and
sheet metal self-tapping screws to support
line clamps, conduit clamps, electrical
equipment, and access doors. The most
common types are the float, the two-lug
anchor, and the one-lug anchor. The nuts
have an arched spring leek that prevents
the screw from working loose. They should
be used only where originally used in the
fabrication of the aircraft.
Point-Wrenching Nuts
• These nuts are generally used where a nut
with a high tensile length is required.
These nuts are installed with a small
socket wrench. They are usually self-
locking.
Shear Nuts
• These nuts are designed for use with
devices such as drilled clevis bolts and
threaded taper pins that are normally
subjected to shearing stress only. They are
usually self-locking.
Klincher Locknuts
• Klincher locknuts are used to ensure a
permanent and vibration proof, bolted
connection that holds solidly and resists
thread wear. It will withstand extremely
high or low temperatures and exposure to
lubricants, weather, and compounds
without impairing the effectiveness of the
locking element. The nut is installed with
the end that looks like a double washer
toward the metal being fastened. Notice in
figure 5.20 that the end that looks like a
double hexagon is away from the metal
being fastened.
Thread Inserts
• General • In addition, thread inserts are often
With the assembly of units and specified for repair work in steel
components, fasteners are often installed components, where the original thread has
in threaded holes. With the periodic been damaged and fitment of an insert
disassembly and reassembly of these enables the original size bolts to be used
parts during their maintenance cycle, without affecting interchangeability.
threads in softer metals will become worn
and damaged. Thread inserts are usually
fitted in light alloy materials such as
aluminium, magnesium, bronze and brass,
to provide a more resilient screw thread.
They also produce a large diameter thread
and thus a stronger attachment point in the
softer materials.
Wire Thread Inserts
• A wire thread insert is a precision formed • The possibility of thread failure from
wire of diamond section (usually of spring vibration, fatigue, corrosion or seizure is
steel or stainless steel) wound into a also reduced. Wire thread inserts have a
helical coil, the crosssection of the wire tang at the inner end to facilitate fitting with
forming a thread both inside and outside a special tool; this tang may be removed
the coil. When correctly installed, the coil after installation if required.
provides a thread which conforms to a
particular British Standard or other
specification with a good surface finish and
the inherent flexibility to compensate to
some degree for any errors of form in the
engaging bolt or screw. The radial
pressure attained in fitting the insert
produces good self-locking characteristics.
Installation
Since the internal and external threads on a
thread insert have the same number of
threads per inch and the internal thread is
designed to be of standard size, then a
special size tap is required to cut the threads
into which the insert is fitted.
These special taps and checking gauges are
provided by the insert manufacturers.
Installation procedures, which comprise
drilling and tapping the hole, thread gauging,
insertion of the insert and removal of the tang,
are outlined.
Drilling
The hole for the insert should be
drilled to the diameter and depth specified in
tables supplied by the insert manufacturer,
the depth being calculated from the fitted
length of the insert, plus the thread runout,
plus a half pitch gap at each end of the insert
(see graphic).
Care should be taken to ensure that the hole
is drilled in the correct location and square to
the surface, and that all swarf is removed
before tapping.
In some cases, particularly when the hole is
near to the edge of the component, it may be
necessary to check for cracks by a specified
non-destructive testing method.
Thread Tapping
The thread should be tapped with a
special tap provided by the insert
manufacturer, a straight- fluted tap being
used for hand tapping and a spiral-fluted tap
for machine tapping where this is possible.

Normal workshop practices should be used

for tapping, with special emphasis on cutting
the thread coaxially with the hole.

Lubricant should be used according to the

type of metal being cut, e.g. a light mineral oil
is generally recommended for tapping light
alloys.

Thread Gauging
After the insert thread has been cut it
should be cleaned of all swarf and foreign
matter.
The thread should then be checked with a
special GO/ NO GO plug gauge provided by
the insert manufacturer to ensure that the
thread is satisfactory.
Any thread imperfections indicated by
tightness of the GO gauge should be
removed by further use of the original tap or, if
this is ineffective, by use of a new tap.
Fitting the Insert
•An insert should be screwed into the tapped
hole by the use of either an inserting key or
an inserting tool of the prewind type,
depending upon which is recommended for
the particular insert.
•A different sized key or tool is provided for
each size of insert.
•The inserting key should be used by sliding
the insert onto it so that the tang is engaged
in the driving slot at its forward end; the
assembly should then be applied to the
tapped hole, compressing the insert
downwards with the thumb and forefinger of
one hand while turning the key with the other
hand; no downward pressure should be
applied on the key. The insert will wind into
the thread and should be installed so that the
outer end of the insert is at least half a pitch
below the surface of the component.
Removal of the Tang
It is not normally necessary to remove
the tang of a wire thread insert from a blind
hole, but removal is usually specified in
through holes for screw clearance or product
appearance. A tang in a through hole is
removed by use of the inserting key used as a
punch, with the tang outside the engaging
slot, or by use of a special punch. A sharp
blow with a hammer on the key or punch will
fracture the wire at the notch where the tang
joins the coil. To remove the tang from an
insert fitted in a blind hole, long round-nosed
pliers are required; the tang should be bent
backwards and forwards through the insert
bore until it fractures at the notch and can be
removed.
Removal of Inserts
If an insert has to be removed
because of bad fitting, damage or wear, this
can be done by carefully picking out the top
coil and bending it inwards to form a rough
tang and unscrewing it with the insertion tool
or a pair of pliers.
Some manufacturers recommend the use of a
tapered lefthand tap of appropriate size,
which grips the top coils internally and
unwinds the insert when rotated. Others
provide a range of extractor tools which are
fitted with hardened and tempered blades, the
blade will bite into the inner surface of the
insert, which can then be unscrewed. After
removal of an insert, the threads in the hole
should be carefully examined for damage
before fitting a new insert.
• If thread damage is excessive, a repair
insert or "Twinsert" can be fitted into the
re-drilled and tapped hole and a standard
insert installed in to this.
Thin Wall Inserts
A thin wall insert comprises a tube
with threads formed on its internal and
external surfaces. These inserts do not exert
any outward radial pressure on the threaded
holes into which they fit, and are locked in
position by various methods. Inserts are
supplied in a variety of types, materials and
finishes, and the internal thread may be non-
locking, or self-locking by means of a
deformed thread or nylon insert; inserts are
identified and ordered by manufacturer‟s part
numbers.
Key-locked Inserts
Drilling and Tapping
Tables provided by the manufacturer
give details of the drill diameters, hole depths
and taps to be used to form the threaded
holes for each size of insert. When preparing
the threaded holes, the general precautions
outlined should be carefully followed.
Installation
The inserts may be screwed in by
hand or by the use of an installation tool until
the keys butt against the component surface,
this being the correct installed depth. The
keys are then driven into place by hammer
blows or a press, using the installation tool as
a punch. When the keys are flush with the top
of the insert, installation is complete.
Removal
•Should it become necessary to remove a
key-locked insert, this may be done as
follows:-

•Drill out the insert to a diameter equal to

the distance between two opposing key slots
and to the depth of the key heads.
•Deflect the keys inward with a punch and
break them off.
•Remove the insert with a standard
extractor.

•After removal of the insert, the threads on the

part should be inspected for damage. If the
threads are undamaged a replacement insert
of the same size may be fitted, but care
should be taken to ensure that the keys are
located in different places from the original
keys.
SWAGED INSERTS
Drilling and Tapping
The holes for these inserts must be
drilled with a special drill and counterboring
tool supplied by the insert manufacturer for
each size of insert.
Holes should be drilled so that the
counterbore depth is as specified in the
relevant tables for the insert concerned, and
the precautions outlined should be observed.
The hole should be tapped using a tap of the
relevant size, to the drawing requirements. All
swarf should then be removed and the thread
inspected.
Installation
A special insertion tool is used for
installing these inserts.
The insert internal thread is deformed in such
a way as to permit the insertion of the
hexagonal driver (unified threads), or has
three axial grooves (metric threads), so that
the insert can be rotated.
The insert should be screwed into the
threaded hole until it is the specified distance
below the component surface.
The insert is swaged by hammer blows on the
end of the tool and installation is complete
when the stop washer face contacts the
component surface.
Note: Insertion tools for the larger sizes of
inserts are power operated.
Removal
•Where necessary, swaged inserts may be
removed in the following way:

•Using a drill of the relevant diameter, drill

the insert to the depth specified in the
manufacturer‟s tables to separate the swaged
portion of the insert.
•Carefully remove the swaged portion with a
scriber or similar tool.
•Using the installation tool, unscrew and
remove the threaded part of the insert.
•The thread and counterbore should be
checked for size and damage. If satisfactory,
a replacement insert of the same size may be
fitted.
Ring-locked Inserts

Drilling and Tapping
The holes for these inserts should be
drilled and counterbored in a similar way to
those for swaged inserts.
Similar drilling/counterboring tools should be
used and the dimensions of the holes should
conform to those listed in the tables provided
by the manufacturer; the precautions outlined
should also be observed.
The holes should be tapped using a tap of the
specified size, to drawing requirements.
All swarf should then be removed and the
thread should be inspected.
Installation
A special tool is used to install these inserts
the bore having serration‟s which fit the
serration‟s of one particular size of insert. The
insert should be screwed into the prepared
hole until its upper surface is 0.25 to 0.5 mm
(0.010 to 0.020 in) below the component
surface. The locking ring should then be
placed over the insert, so that the inner
serration‟s engage those of the insert.
Installation is completed by fitting the drive
tool (see graphic) into the locking ring
(ensuring that it is square to the component
surface), and hammering the end of the tool
so that the outer serration‟s on the locking
ring bite into the material surrounding the
counterbore. The installed locking ring should
be flush with the surface of the component.
Removal
• When necessary, ring-locked inserts may
be removed in the following way:
• Drill out the insert to the depth of the
counterbore, using a drill of the diameter
specified in the tables provided by the
manufacturer.
• Remove the insert by use of a standard
stud extractor or a lefthand threaded tap of
suitable size.
• If necessary, use a punch to separate
and remove the remaining portion of the
locking ring.
• Provided the hole thread is not damaged,
a replacement insert and locking ring of
the same size may be fitted.

Washers
• Plain washers are used to provide a
smooth bearing surface between the nut
an the structure or component to protect it
when tightening the nut. They may be
used to spread the load on a tightened bolt
across a larger area. They may also be
used to adjust the grip length of a fastener.
• Washers are produced in a variety of
materials, sizes and thicknesses and must
be identified by part number and used
accordingly.
• Various anti-vibration and locking devices
may be incorporated in washer design.
Among these are spring washers and
shakeproof washers which are axially
deformed to increase friction between the
nut or bolt and the structure it is installed
on.
•
These should be used once and
discarded. When used on light alloy
structures a plain washer is also installed
to protect the surface.
• Tab washers have a lug, which is located
on the edge of a surface or in a hole
provided to prevent rotation, and two tabs
which are bent up against the flats of the
nut, once tightened, to prevent loosening.
• The 'Tinnerman' type washer is a large
diameter aluminium washer with a
countersunk recess. It is used to attach
fibreglass and composite panels, the large
flange spreading the load of the
countersunk fastener to the surrounding
material.
Studs
• General • Standard Studs
• Studs are metal rods which are threaded • These are supplied in the following sizes:
at each end. They are used, where it is not 3/16 , 1/4, 5/16 and 3/8 UNF. The plain
desirable or possible to drill through both portion is the same diameter as the major
components for the fitting of bolts. One diameter of the thread and the length is
end of the stud is screwed, to the full indicated by the part number.
extent of the thread, into a tapped hole in • The lengths of the threaded portions is
one component - the 'fast' end, a second dictated by the specification.
component is placed onto the exposed
plain portion of the stud and clamped by a
nut. They also provide a means of
alignment control, particularly when they
are irregularly spaced.
Waisted Stud
•The diameter of the plain portion of the
waisted stud is reduced to the minor diameter
of the threaded ends, making the stud lighter
in weight, without impairing its ultimate
strength.
Stepped Stud
•This type is made with one threaded end of
larger diameter than the other. The large end
screws into the unit, which is usually of soft
metal, so providing greater holding power.
Stepped studs are also used as replacements
for damaged studs where the stud hole in the
job, which may also have been damaged, has
to be drilled and tapped to a larger diameter.
Shouldered Stud
•The integral shoulder, machined on the plain
portion of the stud, seats firmly on the surface
of the job into which the stud is screwed,
providing a more rigid assembly than could be
obtained with the use of an ordinary stud.

•Where greater depth of thread engagement

is required i.e., soft material, a coarse series
thread may be employed at the “fast‟
(secured) end and a fine series thread at the
clamping nut end of the stud.
Insertion and Removal of Studs
Stud Replacement
•A stud must be a good fit and should remain
in position when the nut is removed. Studs
that are damaged or loose are to be removed
and new ones fitted. There are a number of
accepted methods of stud replacement, some
of the more common ones are detailed in the
following.
•Note: If a anti-seize or locking compound is
specified this must be applied prior to
replacement and in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
Locknuts
•Two plain nuts are screwed onto the top
thread and locked against each other, the
lower nut being held by a spanner whilst the
upper nut is tightened down onto it. The
complete assembly is screwed in using the
top nut. When the stud is finally screwed
down into position both locknuts are removed
and discarded. For removal, the two nuts are
locked in the same way and the lower one
turned to loosen the stud.
Stud Box
•This consists of a hexagonal body, with two
different sized threads at each end and is
suitable for the insertion of two sizes of studs.
The stud box is screwed onto the stud and
locked by a bolt, a soft metal disc between
them is used to prevent damage to the stud
and the locking bolt. The stud is then fitted by
turning the box body with a suitable spanner.
Stud box removal is effected by slackening
the locking bolt and unscrewing the box body
from the stud.
Stud Tool
The Stud Tool consists of a hollow body with
a handle attached. The upper end is threaded
to accommodate a locating screw, the other
end contains internally machined cam faces.
Located in this end is a cage containing three
hardened steel rollers which are free to move
radially within the limit of their axis holes in
the cage. The cage assembly is retained
within the body by an end plate. The stud to
be inserted or extracted, is passed through
the hole in the end plate until the plain portion
of the stud is positioned within the cage. The
locating screw is adjusted to prevent further
entry of the stud into the tool and prevent
damage to the threads.
• When the tool body is rotated the light
frictional grip of the rollers on the stud
shank cause them to rotate within the
housing and ride round the cam faces. The
rotating cam faces force the rollers
inwards, thus providing a tight grip on the
stud shank. The stud then turns with the
tool in the direction of rotation. Partial
rotation in the opposite direction will allow
the rollers to disengage from the stud
shank thus permitting the tool to be
removed. This tool is not suitable for
waisted studs.
Stud Removal
•Loose or undamaged studs may be removed
by the use of locknuts - (use spanner on the
lower nut), stud tool or universal stud
extractors.
•Universal Stud Extractors consists of a body
machined to accommodate the square drive
socket bush (for use with ratchet handle or
knuckle bar) and an eccentrically mounted
knurled wheel.
•The body is bored to allow the insertion of
the largest diameter stud of the tools range.
• The Stud Removal Wrench is a one piece
• The stud is placed in the extractor until the
plain portion is in line with the knurled
wheel, a suitable handle is inserted in the
square drive socket. Initial movement of
the handle rotates the socket bush forcing
the knurled wheel to contact and grip the
plain portion of the stud, further movement
of the handle will turn the extractor body
and stud. Slight rotation in the opposite
direction causes the knurled wheel to
disengage from the stud shank allowing
the extractor to be removed.
tool that works on the same principle.
• Damaged Studs
• Those damaged or broken above the
surface of the component may be removed
by one of the following methods:

• Unscrew stud with a suitable pipe

wrench or stud removal tool
• File flats on projecting part of stud and
use an open ended spanner or tap wrench
to unscrew.
• Cut and file screwdriver slot in projecting
part and unscrew with a screwdriver.
• Sheared or Broken Studs • Drill a hole approximately half the stud
• For studs broken flush with or below the diameter. Drive in a square or splined
surface of the component one of the tapered drift, unscrew with a spanner -
following methods should be used: care must be taken not to expand the stud.
• Drill and tap the stud with a thread
• Drill out stud, tap over-size and fit opposite hand to that of the stud, insert a
stepped stud. bolt and unscrew.
• Drill out stud, tap and fit threaded insert
(or Twinsert).
• Drill (minor diameter of stud), pick out old
loose thread, re-tap to standard size - use
only when accurate drilling and marking
out facilities are available.
• 
Ezy-Out Screw Extractor
•This resembles a coarse left hand tapered
tap and is used in conjunction with a tap
wrench. The recommended size of hole
(indicated on the screw extractor) is drilled
centrally in the stud and the „Ezy-Out‟ is
inserted and tapped in. Rotating the wrench in
an anti-clockwise direction causes the
extractor to screw in and grip the stud tightly
until, when sufficient turning movement is
applied, the stud commences to unscrew.
This type of extractor is suitable for right hand
threads only. Where space allows, step
drilling the hole increases the contact area
between the stud and the extractor.
• Rigid Type Screw Extractor • The extractor shaft, which is hardened and
• This extractor is issued as a boxed set; the serrated is driven into the drilled hole and
set consists of a quantity of twist drills, drill the internally serrated hexagonal adapter
guides, extractor shafts and hexagonal is placed in position on the shaft. A
adapters, covering a specified range of suitable spanner is applied to the adapter
screws. A table containing all relevant data and the whole assembly including the stud,
is contained on the lid of the box supplied is turned to unscrew it.
with the set. The specified drill guide is
placed in the hole of the sheared stud and
a drill is passed through, boring a hole in
the centre of the stud, (this accessory can
only be used when the stud is broken
beneath the surface of the component).
• Spark Erosion
• Hardened steel studs and screws can be
removed by this method. The metal is
removed by the thermal effect of electric
discharges across the gap between the
tool electrode and the broken stud. The
electrode which is approximately the minor
diameter of the stud, is mechanically
vibrated so that periodic contacts with the
metal to be removed is made. When
contact is made the current will flow and as
the electrode leaves the workpiece an arc
will be struck, this however, will be
quenched by the fluid in which the
specimen is immersed. The spark gap is
maintained automatically as erosion
proceeds. On completion of this process
the remaining threads are removed.
Bolted Joints
•The strength and reliability of bolted joints, or
any joint dependant on a screw thread, is
governed by the quality of the assembly.
•In order that the full strength of a nut is to be
realised, it is essential that the bolt thread is
fully engaged with the nut. Nut thickness
standards have been drawn up on the basis
that the bolt will always sustain tensile
fracture before either the nut or bolt thread will
strip. Typically the first few pitches of a thread
are only partially formed because of the
chamfer and thread lead-in or run-out areas.
It is, therefore vital that the bolt thread
protrudes through the nut. Failure to ensure
this runs the risk that thread stripping will
occur.
• Conversely if the bolt is too long the nut
may run out of thread before the desired
tension is achieved. In this situation the
assembly is said to be "Thread-bound".
Attempting to tighten the assembly further
will damage both the nut and bolt threads
and may make disassembly difficult.
Ineffective clamping caused by a thread-
bound bolt leaves the joint weakened and
subject to movement and wear.
• Selection of the correct fasteners using the
Illustrated Parts Catalogue will usually
prevent assemblies having insufficient or
excessive thread protrusion and
differences from the stated part should be
investigated. A certain amount of
discretion is sometimes given by the
manufacturer and the engineer must select
the best grip length for a given part
number. The use of packing washers to
modify the grip length is permitted only
within limits stated in the Structural Repair
Manual.
• Where a ring of bolts, or nuts on studs, are
used to hold and assembly flange together,
or a cover plate in place, even clamping is
essential to ensure a good seal is achieved.
It is usual practice to tighten the fasteners in
stages and in a specific order to ensure the
correct installation.
• The order for tightening the fasteners is
sometimes given in the maintenance or
overhaul manual but when it is not stated,
fasteners should be tightened as diametrical
opposites. The diagrams illustrate the order
for various types of joint.
• The manual may specify stages to
tightening, e.g. tighten all bolts finger tight,
then in sequence to half required tightness,
then in same sequence to fully tight, then
back off half turn and tighten to final value in
sequence.
Torque Loading
• General:
All fasteners must be tightened to a
controlled 'tightness'. This is done not to
prevent the fastener from loosening (that is
accomplished by the locking devices and
mechanism described elsewhere) but to
ensure that the clamping force of the
fastener is adequate and the tensile load on
it has not exceeded it's limits.
When a nut is tightened onto a bolt,
clamping material between them, the
tendency is to stretch the bolt shank. This
action controls the clamping force up to the
elastic limit of the bolt material. Beyond this
point the bolt becomes permanently
deformed and the clamping load can no
longer be relied upon. The bolt also
becomes weakened at the elastic limit and if
loaded further, either during installation or in
service, it will fail.
• For fasteners used in pure shear
applications the clamping action is of little
significance so the upper limit is more
important. However for most applications,
which are in tension, or tension and shear,
the fastener must be tightened to a point
between the critical upper and lower limits.
• The tension on a fastener can be
determined by measuring the amount it
stretches during tightening and indeed this
is done on some vital bolted joints. It is,
however, an awkward process and is not
suitable for the majority of threaded
fasteners installed on an aircraft. A more
common method is to measure the amount
of torque applied to the fastener.
• Torque is force applied in rotary motion.
Knowing the pitch of the thread it is possible
to determine the tension on the fastener
from the torque applied to it. This method is
easy to apply but less accurate due to
factors such as the friction between the
threads.
• Torque measurements are derived from the
force applied and the distance from the
axial centre at which it is applied
• Torque = Force X Length of Lever
It is measured in units such as pounds
force/inches (lb/in, lbf.in, inch/ pounds),
pounds/feet (lb/ft, lbf.ft, foot/pounds),
kilogram/metres (kg/m), newton/metres
(N/m, mN) and deka- Newton/metres
(daNm, mdaN). While both imperial and
metric values are quoted in maintenance
manuals nowadays, in the UK aviation
industry most organisations use imperial
measurements.
• The most basic method of measuring a
torque value is to use a force measuring
device such as a spring balance on the
end of a spanner or wrench of known
length.
• This method is, however, cumbersome an
difficult to achieve in areas of restricted
access. For this reason direct reading
instruments have been developed.

• lb - pound
Torque Wrenches
• There are basically three types of torque
wrench.
• Flexible Beam Type
One type contains a flexible beam which
bends under load. On the more basic tool
a pointer attached to the flexible beam
indicates on a scale attached to the socket
drive block, while the more modern torque
wrenches have a geared mechanism and
the amount of bend is shown by a needle
on a dial which is graduated in units of
torque. The dial often has a follow-up
needle which records the maximum torque
achieved.
• Break Type
The second type contains a spring loaded
over-centre device which must be preset
before use.
When this preset torque is reached, the
wrench “breaks‟ with an audible click and
jump.
Further tightening of the fastener will
increase the torque.
On this type the spring mechanism is
tensioned and the torque preset by rotating
the handle or an attached knob, a scale on
the shaft indicates the torque value set.
The socket drive can usually be pushed
through to allow torque loading in either
direction.
• For smaller sizes of nuts and bolts
screwdriver type torque wrenches are
available which break when the set torque
is reached.
• Again it is important not to continue
tightening the nut or bolt beyond the break
point, otherwise the fastening will be over
tightened.
• The torque setting may be adjusted by
turning a ring with a datum mark against a
calibrated scale, or turning an allen key.
• Dial Measuring Type
• The Dial Measuring type torque wrench
uses a calibrated spring to measure the
torque, while a gear mechanism produces
the dial reading. An overload protection
rod is included to protect the mechanism,
but it will not prevent too much torque
being applied. The dial often has a follow-
up needle which records the maximum
torque achieved, and sometimes a light or
buzzer which operates when a
predetermined torque is reached.
• The socket head incorporates a ratchet
mechanism so that fasteners can be spun
down and torqued with the same tool. It
also has a socket drive on both sides so
that torque can be applied in both
directions.
• Due to it's accuracy and durability, the Dial
Measuring torque wrench is the preferred
type in the aircraft industry.
Calibration of Torque Wrenches
•All torque wrenches that are used on aircraft
must be regularly inspected, tested and
calibrated by a facility equipped to do so.
•The equipment must carry evidence of the
facility that certified the equipment and the
date that it is due for recalibration/inspection.
• If the calibration sticker date has expired or
it is believed the instrument is faulty do
NOT use the measuring equipment but
return to the standards facility responsible
for its calibration.
• Prior to use, a confidence check should
also be performed to satisfy the user that
the wrench calibration is accurate. Torque
testing machines are available at all tool
issue stores for this purpose.
Assembly
•To remove the roughness from threads and
mating surfaces when assembling new
components which require high torque
loadings:
1.Clean, and where specified, lubricate the
threads and mating surfaces of nut, bolt and
washer.
2.Tighten the nut to half the specified torque
value.
3.Slacken the nut then finally re-tighten to the
specified torque value.
• When the torque loaded fastener is to be
secured by means of a split pin or lock
wire, tighten first to the low limit of the
torque range. If necessary, tighten the
fastener so that the next slot aligns with
the hole, ensuring that the maximum
torque is not exceeded. If the maximum
torque is reached and the slot in the nut
does not line up with the hole in the bolt,
the nut and washer must be changed.

Torque should be applied with a gently rising

pressure, not jerks of the wrench and
pressure must be released as soon as the
desired torque is indicated.
• The torque wrench selected for a particular
use should have a range such that the
specified torque falls within the upper
range of the scale.
• Ensure that a torque wrench with a floating
drive is used the right way round e.g.
Britool type.
• Fasteners which may have been tightened
beyond the maximum specified torque
value, must be removed and scrapped.
• Whenever a torque wrench is used, it must
be confirmed that the specified torque and
the wrench are in the same units. If they
are not, then the specified torque should
be converted, by calculation, to the units
shown on the wrench scale. Any
measurements taken must be taken in
appropriate units.

• Where it is necessary to re-torque a

fastener assembly, the nut must be backed
off part of a turn and re-tightened to the
specified value.
Torque Correction
•If a torque wrench is used in conjunction with
a socket type of spanner the nut and torque
wrench square drive will coincide and the
torque applied to the nut may be read directly
from the wrench scale.
•However, in some cases an extension
spanner or adaptor may have to be used in
conjunction with a torque wrench and the
torque applied to the nut will be different from
the torque shown on the torque wrench scale.
• The illustration shows a typical flexible dial
measuring type torque wrench which has
an extension spanner attached. If this
combination is used to torque load a
fastener, then the following formula must
be used to calculate the torque wrench
scale reading which corresponds to the
specified torque value.
Pre-Load Indicating Washers
Precision Torque Loading
•The value of the pre-load applied to a
fastener by means of a torque wrench may
vary considerably and, because of this,
specified torque loadings are usually low
compared with the actual strength of the
fastener.
• In certain critical bolted joints the
manufacturer may consider that more
accurate clamping is required and specify the
use of Pre-Load Indicating (PLI) washers.
Pre-Load Indicating Washers
•PLI washers consist of concentric inner and
outer rings and two highstrength steel
washers as shown. The outer ring is thinner
than the inner ring and has a series of radial
holes drilled through it.
•A stiff wire tool is inserted in holes in the
outer ring and used to check whether the ring
is free to rotate. As the nut is tightened the
inner ring is compressed until, at a
predetermined pre-load, the outer ring is
nipped between the washers; at this point the
outer ring can no longer be rotated and
tightening is complete.
Fastener Systems
British Fastener Standards
•Fasteners used on aircraft and aeronautical
equipment constructed in Britain usually
conform to one of two national standards.
•These are the British Standards (BS) “A”
Series of Aircraft Materials and Components,
and the Society of British Aerospace
Companies (SBAC) “AS” Series of
specifications.
•The older Aircraft General Standards (AGS)
system has been modified by these, however
the term “AGS” is commonly used when
referring to aircraft Standard Parts even when
they are of American origin.
Threads
•Historically, British fasteners had either
British Association (BA) British Standard
Whitworth (BSW) or British Standard Fine
(BSF) threads although more recently the
standard Unified thread forms Unified Fine
(UNF) and Unified Coarse (UNC) have
become the international industry standard.
•All modern commercial aircraft are
constructed with fasteners having a Unified
thread form, the older British threads rarely
being encountered.
Part Numbers A206-B 16
•Parts conforming to the British Standards •A206 - Screw, Corrosion Resistant Steel,
system have part numbers starting with the Natural Finish,Unified 2A thread, size 440
letter 'A' followed by a three digit code UNC to 10- 32 UNF (Unified fine)
which describes the physical shape, •B - 6-32UNC (Unified coarse)
material, finish, thread form and size •16 - Nominal length in 1/32 inch = 1/2 inch
range.
•This is followed by a dash (-) and for bolts
a number representing the grip length then
a letter indicating the shank diameter.
•The letter code used is common across the
British specification Systems.
•For screws the dash number and letter
are reversed.
SBAC
•The SBAC Aircraft Standards system offers a
supplementary range of fastener designs • AS2-5E
using different head styles and special
• AS2 - Bolt, 1000 csk. Head, Titanium,
materials.
Natural Finish, Unified Thread.
•Some AS parts are coded in a similar
• 5 - Grip Length in 1/10 inch = 1/2 inch.
manner to the BS “A” series with the “AS”
number defining the style, material, thread • E - 1/4 -28UNF
form and size range, followed by a dash
number and letter for grip length and
diameter.
Mating Parts • A105PC
•Unified British nuts usually conform to the • A105 - Nut, Corrosion Resistant Steel,
British Standard, or SBAC specification Natural Finish, Size range 4-40 UNC to 1
Systems and are numbered in a similar inch UNF
manner to the fasteners. • P - 9/16 UNF
•The letter indicating thread size may be • C - Castellated (nut having grooves or
followed by a further letter, added to indicate slots on its upper face)
the nut style (P = Plain, T = Thin, S = Slotted,
C = Castellated) when this is not included in
the basic specification.
Markings
•Where possible, fasteners will carry some
form of identification marking, such as part or
all of the components Part Number or an
identification code.
•Smaller parts, however, will usually have no
markings and can only be identified from their
release documentation or by measurement
and careful comparison with the standards
tables.
•Many British parts with Unified threads have
markings to differentiate them from similar
parts with British thread forms. These
markings may be stamped onto the bolt head
or nut (A and B), a recess in the bolt head (C)
on the end of the threaded portion (D).
• Substitution
• Alternative parts may be substituted as
indicated in the Structural Repair Manual
for the aircraft concerned or under the
authority of the Technical Services
department.
• It is common practice within many
organisations to replace British bolts with
their American equivalents when required
as they are cheaper and more readily
available.
• The identification of bolts and screws
located on aircraft may not always be an
easy task since not all are marked to show
the standard to which they conform.
• We set out to show the features from
which positive identification may be made,
but it should be understood that items
exist, which although identical in
appearance, may not be interchangeable.
• It is also important to understand the
direction of stress in a particular bolt since
a „shear‟ bolt must not be used to replace
a „tension‟ bolt.
• If any doubt exists as to the identity of a
particular item the appropriate Parts
Catalogue should be consulted;
replacement of an incorrect part may lead
to failure in service.
 Code Diameter Code Diameter
• Bolts and screws of similar shape may be
further identified by the material; aluminiumY 0-80 UNF J 3/8" UNF
alloy is dyed green, high tensile steel is Z 2-64 UNF L (UNJF)7/16" UNF
cadmium plated and corrosion resistant A 4-40 UNC N (UNJF)1/2" UNF
steel or brass are normally uncoated. B 6-32 UNC P (UNJF)9/16" UNF
C 8-32 UNC Q (UNJF)5/8" UNF
Code System for Unified Bolts and Screws D 10-32 UNF (UNJF) S (UNJF)3/4" UNF
• The code system used for the identification E 1/4" UNF (UNJF) U (UNJF)7/8" UNF
of the bolts and screws listed in the G 5/16" UNF (UNJF) W (UNJF)1" UNF
previous table consists of the Standard (UNJF)
number followed by the part number of the
particular bolt. The diameter code shown in
the table (below) is used on all parts but the
measurement of length varies with different
Standards as follows:
Double Hexagon Head Bolts
•This table shows the AS specifications for
double hexagon head bolts manufactured
from heat resistant steel and having UNS
(Unified Special) or UNJF threads.
Requirements for protective treatment vary
between specifications, some bolts being
silver plated while others have a natural
finish.
BA (British Association) and BSF(British standard Fine) Bolts

• In the earlier UK system : Code Size Code Size

• bolts more than ¼ inch diameter are
A 6 BA P 9/16" BSF
normally BSF
B 4 BA Q 5/8” BSF
• bolts less than ¼ inch diameter (and most C 2 BA S 3/4" BSF
screws) are BA. E 1/4” BSF U 7/8" BSF
• Both of these items also use a number to G 5/16" BSF W 1" BSF
represent their nominal length and a letter J 3/ 8" BSF X 12 BA
code to identify their diameter. L 7/16" BSF Y 10 BA
N 1/2"BSF Z 8 BA
Nuts of British Manufacture
Introduction
•This section provides guidance on the
identification of nuts complying with British
Standards “A‟ Series of Aircraft Materials and
Components, with Aircraft General Standards
(AGS) Specifications and with certain
specifications in the Society of British
Aerospace Companies
“AS‟ Series.
• Failure of a fastener through the use of an
incorrect nut could cause malfunction and
in certain circumstances, lead to the
jamming of controls.
• It is most important therefore, that
engineers and inspectors should be
acquainted with the features by which any
particular type of nut may be identified.
• A nut may have the correct type of thread
but it may be unsuitable for some other
reasons such as material, temperature
classification or length of thread; it is also
possible to fit a nut of incorrect size, e.g. a
10- 32 UNF nut may fit an 8-32 UNC
screw. These dangers may be minimised
by constant vigilance during servicing
operations.
• British Standards Nuts Having Unified
Threads
The table opposite gives a list of the BS
ordinary hexagon nuts and overleaf, the
Standards applicable to stiffnuts of various
types.
Identification
Nuts with Unified threads may be identified
by their shape, type of finish and thread
size.
Additionally, all nuts other than anchor
nuts, 8-32 UNC and larger, are marked
with the “Unified‟ symbol of contiguous
(sharing a common border) circles.
The identification of smaller nuts may be
more difficult, for example, an A222, 2-64
UNF nut is similar to an old A47, 8 BA nut,
and it may be necessary to try the nut on a
bolt of known thread to achieve positive
identification.
Code System
•The code system used for the identification
of nuts having Unified threads consists of the
British Standard number followed by a letter
indicating the size of thread , followed, when
appropriate, by a letter indicating the type of
nut, i.e. P (Plain nut), S (Slotted nut), C
(Castellated nut) and T (Thin nut). These
letters are not, however, applied to the nut.
For example, the complete part number used
on drawings or when ordering a 7/16 inch
UNF ordinary A107 nut is A107LP but the nut
is only marked “A107‟. Where stiffnuts are
concerned, the part number is not marked on
nuts of any size, but over 3/8 inch diameter a
letter indicating thread size is applied.
• Left-Hand Threads(a left hand thread is
one which advances into the nut when
turned in a counter clockwise direction.
An abbreviation LH is used to indicate a
left hand thread)
• Left-hand threads in nuts are indicated by
the use of the suffix letter “L‟. Thus the
reference number for a 4-40 UNC ordinary
brass nut complying with BS A210 would
be A210 APL, i.e. the Standard number +
the diameter letter + the nut type + left-
hand thread. The letter “L‟ is also applied
to one of the hexagon faces of the nut.
There is no provision made for left-hand
threads in the specifications relating to
stiffnuts.
Stiffnuts of British Manufacture
• Stiffnuts ¼ inch UNF and larger which are
manufactured from corrosion resistant
steel, are marked with the letter “Z‟, either
on one flat or on the base plate; when the
nut is also silver plated, the letter “X‟ is
added to or replaces the “Z‟. Brass anchor
nuts are marked with the letter “B‟ and all
hexagon brass stiffnuts have a washer
face.
• Manuals for older types of aircraft may be
found to contain only special torque
loading requirements and a single table
applicable to non selflocking nuts, in these
cases the frictional torque of a stiffnut must
be added to the torque quoted for the type
and size of thread.
• Anchor Nuts
• As previously mentioned, hexagon, clinch
and strip stiffnuts are marked with a
“Unified‟ symbol to show the type of thread
used. Anchor nuts are not marked as
Unified because the shape of the base
plate is considered to be adequate for
recognition purposes; these are much
smaller and less angular than those fitted
to similar stiffnuts with the older thread
forms in the AGS range of specifications.
Double Hexagon Stiffnuts
•A range of double-hexagon stiffnuts
manufactured from heat resistant steel and
having UNJF threads, is provided in the
SBAC, AS series 20623 to 20630,
representing thread sizes 8-36 UNJF to 9/16 -
18 UNJF.
•These nuts are specified for use on the AS
series of heat resistant bolts with UNJF
threads, and may be identified from the AS
number marked on the extended washer
portion of the nut.
Ordinary and Anchor Stiffnuts
•A series of AS specifications for lightweight
hexagon and anchor stiffnuts has been
produced in the range AS 8600 to 8661.
These nuts are manufactured from high
tensile steel and are considerably lighter than
conventional nuts; all are now manufactured
with UNJ threads.
American Fastener Standards
Standards
•Aircraft of American manufacture are
considered with fasteners, parts and materials
conforming to one of several Standards or
Specifications Systems. These include:
• Army Air Corps (AC),
• Air Force/Navy Specifications (AN),
• American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME),
• American Standards Association (ASA),
• Federal Specifications (various codes),
• Military Standards (MS or Mil),
• National Aerospace Standards (NAS),
• Naval Aircraft Factory (NAF),
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE),
• Aeronautical Material Division of SAE
(AMS),
• USA Standard (USAS).
 Specifications
•The specifications for the individual parts are
drawn up by the Standards organisations or
• Boeing Aircraft Company Specifications
bodies and recorded on Specification Data
• BAC Sheets which are available to the approved
• Lockheed Specifications manufacturers and other user organisations
• LS from the National Standards Association.
• McDonald Douglas Specifications •The Data Sheets contain all the information
• Codes Vary required to manufacture the part including a
drawing of the item with a full description of it,
a list of the dimensions and their tolerances in
all the nominal sizes in the components
range, details of the materials, plating and any
special processes used. It will also contain
details of how the part number is constructed
and a reference to a Procurement
Specification.
Part Numbers
•Parts which are common to more than one
aircraft type, such as fasteners and their
mating parts (nuts, collars and washers etc.),
are often referred to as Standard Parts.
•The Part Number which describes a standard
part usually contains the code of the Standard
or Specification system to which it conforms
(e.g. AN, MS or NAS) and encoded
information about the item style.
• It will also contain information about the
components size and thread form etc., either
as a number of increments or as a code
which enables the information to be found
from a table on the components Data Sheet.
Identification
•Many larger fasteners have all or part of the
Part Number marked on them and some
smaller ones have markings which can be
used to identify them .
•Nuts, washers and small fasteners, however,
can only be positively identified by referring to
their release documentation or measuring and
comparing them to their specification tables
and drawings.
Manufacturers Codes
•Fasteners are not normally made by the
organisation or body which lays down the
Standards and Specifications and many will
be marked with the manufacturers Part No or
identification code.
•For example a Hi-Lok fastener ordered to a
Boeing Specification with the part number
BACB30MY8K6 may have the marking
HL10V stamped on the head.
•This indicates that it was made by the Hi-
Shear Corporation to it‟s own specification
with the full part number HL10V8-6.
• These two specifications are
interchangeable.

Part Number Breakdown
•For identification purposes the “AN‟ number
is used to indicate the type of bolt and its
diameter.
•In addition a code is used to indicate the
material, length and presence of a split pin or
locking wire hole as follows:
•Diameter: The last figure, or last two
figures, of the”AN‟ number indicates thread
diameter, 1 = No. 6, 2 = No.8, 3 = No.10, and
4 = ¼” with subsequent numbers indicating
the diameter in 1/16” increments.
•Thus an AN4 is a hexagon headed bolt of ¼”
diameter and an AN14 is a hexagon headed
bolt of 7/8” (14/16”) diameter.
• Lengths: The length of a bolt, in the
case of a hexagonal headed bolt, is
measured from under the head to the first
full thread and is quoted in 1/8”
increments as a dash number.
• Material: The standard coding applies to
a non-corrosion-resistant, cadmium-plated
steel bolt. Where the bolt is supplied in
other materials, letters are placed after the
AN number as follows:
• C=Corrosion Resistance Steel C.R.S.
• DD= Aluminium Alloy
Air Force/Navy (AN)
•The AN system covers a wide range of
standard aircraft parts
•Although it is described as obsolescent and
as being replaced by the Military Standards
(MS) and National Aerospace Standards
(NAS) systems, fasteners and mating parts
with AN part numbers are still in common use
and are still being fitted to new aircraft such
as the B747-400 and B767 at manufacture.
Fasteners
•AN bolts and screws can be divided into
Early and Late series Part Numbers.
•Early series Part Numbers contain encoded
information about the shape, size and
material of the part.
•Late series numbers have a six digit number
which cannot be decoded without
reference to the appropriate specification
tables.
Nuts
•AN nuts are again split into Early and Late
series Part Numbers.
•Early series numbers have a three digit
number to describe the style then a dash
number to indicate the thread size.
•A letter replacing the dash indicates a
material other than plain steel.

Washers
•AN washers are available in four main types,
AN935 Spring Washers, AN936 Shake Proof
Washers, AN960 Plain Washers and AN970
Large Area (Penny) Washers. Information is
encoded
Military Standards (MS)
•The MS system is intended to replace the
separate standards systems used by the
American armed services (AC, AN, NAF etc.).
•It covers a wide range of standard aircraft
parts which are also used in the construction
of commercial aircraft.
Nuts
•MS nuts are coded with a four digit number
for style and material followed by a dash
number for thread size.
•first 2 digit - style
•second 2 digit - material
Fasteners
•MS fasteners are allocated a four or five digit
Part Number followed by a dash number.
• In some cases the diameter of the fastener
is included in the basic Part Number while the
dash number represents the length.
•In others, however, the dash number
includes both the diameter and the length. In
either case it is often not possible to
determine the size of the fastener without
reference to the standards tables as the dash
numbers do not always represent any
particular increments.
Washers
•MS washers are coded by a five digit number
for style and material followed by a dash
number for size.
•The dash number must be obtained from the
standards tables.
National Aerospace Standards (NAS) Fasteners
•The NAS system provides a range of •NAS fasteners are coded with either a three
design and process standards, as well as or four digit number. Some part numbers
material and parts specifications. include the diameter as the last two digits e.g.
• The design standards cover information •NAS6604, 04 = 1/4-28 UNF 00 = 4-40,
such as fastener head markings, plating and •01 = 6-32,
locking requirements. •02 = 8-32,
•The parts specifications include a wide range •03 = 10-32,
of fasteners and a few washers and nuts.
•04 = 1/4-28,
• NAS fasteners are often used with mating
•05 = 5/16-24,
parts from the manufacturers standards.
•06 = 3/8-24,
•etc.
Boeing Airplane Company (BAC)
•The Boeing Standards system gives
specifications for a wide range of standard
parts used in the manufacture of their aircraft.
•The Part Numbers are all produced in a
common format which Contains a code
indicating the type of component and includes
as many fields as are needed to describe the
component.
•The format for a fastener code is:

BAC B30 ZZ 4 - 12 A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
• 1Boeing Airplane Company
• 2Component Type e.g. B28 = Bearing,
B30 = Bolt, N10 = Nut, W10 = Washer etc.
• 3Specification Code including physical
shape, material, finish etc.
• 4Shank Diameter/Thread size, in 1/32 inch
increments for “permanent‟ fasteners and
1/16 inch increments for removable
fasteners. For nuts and washers it reflects
the size of bolt they will fit.
• 5Dash, may be replaced by a letter
e.g. H = Drilled Head, D = Drilled Shank.
• 6Length, in 1/16 inch increments for all
fastener types. Indicates length of plain
shank for bolts and total length for fully
threaded fasteners.
• 7Letter used when applicable to carry
extra information
Special Bolts
•The hexagon headed aircraft bolt AN3 –
AN20 (refer to Fig.45), is an all purpose
structural bolt used for applications involving
tension or shear loads where a light drive fit is
permissible.
• Alloy steel bolts, smaller than 3/16”
diameter, and aluminium alloy bolts smaller
than ¼” are not used on primary structure. • Internal Wrenching Bolts:
Other bolts may be used as follows:
• Close Tolerance Bolts: These bolts are These are fabricated from high- strength
machined more accurately than the steel and are suitable for tensile or shear
standard bolt. applications.
• They may be hexagon headed or have a The head is recessed to allow the insertion
100º countersunk head . of a hexagonal key used for installing or
• They are used in applications where a tight removing the bolt.
drive fit is required, hammer to drive it into
position.

• Close-tolerance bolts are identified by a

triangle around the mark on the bolt head
that identifies the material of which the bolt
is made.
• Clevis Bolts:
• The head of a clevis bolt is round and
either slotted, for a standard screwdriver,
or recessed, for a cross-pointed
screwdriver.
• This type of bolt is used only for shear
loads and never in tension. It is often
inserted as a mechanical pin in a control
system.

• Clevis bolts have a slotted brazier type

head and are special-purpose bolts for use
where a large shearing stress occurs
(never in tension)
• Eyebolt:

• The eye is designed for the attachment of

cable shackles or turnbuckles and the bolt
is used for tensile loads.

• The threaded end may be drilled for

“safetying‟
Screws
•Screws are probably the most commonly
used threaded fastener in aircraft
construction.
•They differ from bolts in that they are
generally made from lower-strength materials.
•They can be fastened by a variety of tools,
including screwdrivers, spanners and Allen
keys.
•Most screws are threaded along their
complete length, while some have a plain
portion for part of their length.

•Allen key:
Machine Screws
•Machine screws are used extensively for
attaching fairings (an external metal or plastic
structure added to increase streamlining on a
high-performance car, motorcycle, boat, or
aircraft.), inspection plates, fluid line clamps
and other light structural parts.
•The main difference between aircraft bolts
and machine screws, is that the threads of a
machine screw usually run the length of the
shank, whereas bolts usually have an
unthreaded grip length.
• The commonly used machine screws are
the flush-head, round-head, fillister-head,
socket- head, pan-head and truss-head
types.
• Flush-Head - Flush-head machine
screws are used in countersunk holes
where a flush finish is desired. These
screws are available in 82 and 100
degrees of head angle, and have various
types of recesses and slots for driving.
• Round-Head - Round-head machine
screws are frequently used in assembling
highly stressed aircraft components.
• Fillister-Head - Fillister-head machine
screws are used as general-purpose
screws. They may also be used as cap
screws in light applications such as the
attachment of cast aluminium gearbox
cover plates.
• Socket-Head - Socket-head machine
screws are designed to be screwed into
tapped holes by internal wrenching. They
are used in applications that require high-
strength precision products, compactness
of the assembled parts, or sinking of the
head into holes.
• Pan- and Truss-Head - Pan-head and
truss- head screws are general-purpose
screws used where head height is
unimportant. These screws are available
with cross-recessed heads only.
Structural Screws
•Structural screws are used for assembling
structural parts.
•They are made of alloy steel and are heat
treated.
•Structural screws have a definite grip length
and the same shear and tensile strengths as
the equivalent size bolt.
•They differ from structural bolts only in the
type of head.
•These screws are available in round-head,
countersunk-head, and brazier-head types,
either slotted or recessed for the various
types of screwdrivers.
Self-Tapping Screws
•Self-tapping screws have coarse threads and
are used to hold thin sheets of metal, plastic • There are four types of head in normal
and plywood together. use:
•The type A screw has a gimlet (sharp) point,
and the type B has a blunt point with threads
• round head
that are slightly finer than the type A.
• countersunk oval-head
• truss or mushroom-head
• flat countersunk-head.
6.5.3 LOCKING DEVICES
• The purpose of this section is to provide
guidance and advice on the methods of
locking screw- threaded components and
the retention or location of circular parts in
various assemblies.
• Regulations require that an approved
means of locking must be provided on all
connecting elements in the primary
structure, fluid systems, controls and other
mechanical systems essential to the safe
operation of an aircraft.
• The purpose of a locking device is to
prevent loosening or disengagement of
mating components under varying
conditions of stress, vibration and
temperature as its effectiveness may be of
the utmost importance to the safety of an
aircraft.
• Locking devices should be fitted in such a
way as to prevent the possibility of fretting,
distortion, displacement or uneven
stressing of the locked parts.

• During inspection of the assembly, it is
necessary to ascertain that all locking or
retaining devices are of the type and
material specified in the relevant drawings
or the appropriate publication and that the
locking or fitting operation has been
correctly performed with the appropriate
tools.
Split Pins
•Split pins (some times referred to as Cotter
Pins ) are manufactured from corrosion
resisting steel and are used in conjunction
with drilled bolts and slotted or castellated
nuts.
•The pins should be a reasonably close fit in
the nut and bolt/stud assembly.
•The table indicates the diameters and length
of standard pins normally used in conjunction
with bolts/studs up to 1 inch diameter
• split pin is used for locking and to hold an
object in place. It is commonly split in the
middle and has two tines that can be bent
around the nut or bolt to secure machinery
Rollpins
•The Rollpin (or Spring pin) is a pressed-fit
parallel pin with chamfered ends.
• It is tubular in shape and is slotted the full
length of the tube.
•The pin is inserted with hand tools and is
compressed as it is driven into place.
•Pressure exerted by the rollpin against the
hole walls keeps it in place, until deliberately
removed with a Pin Punch.
•It may be used with a drilled bolt and slotted
or castellated nut or with a nut drilled for the
purpose.
Locking Washers
•There are several types of locking washers in
general use consisting of spring washers, cup
washers, shakeproof washers, crinkle
washers and tab washers. They are
described by various specification systems.
Spring Washers
•These washers are available in two forms,
i.e. as a single coil or as a double coil.
•In some instances, particularly with light alloy
assemblies, spring washers are assembled
with plain facing washers between the spring
washer and the component, to prevent
damage to the surface of the component or
the protective treatment when the spring
washer is compressed. Often, however,
particularly in steel assemblies, plain washers
are not specified.
•It is good practice to renew spring washers
during overhaul or repair. This is essential in
engines and engine components, and units
with reciprocating parts, such as compressors
or pumps.
Crinkle Washers
•These washers, made of copper alloy or
corrosion resisting steel, are often used in
lightly loaded applications in instrument and
electrical installations.
Cup Washers
•These washers are manufactured in spring
steel and are dished to form a spring of high
rating; assembly should be in accordance
with the manufacturer‟s instructions.
Shakeproof Washers
•Flat washers of this type, made of steel or
phosphor bronze, are sometimes used
instead of spring washers and in certain
circumstances, conical shakeproof washers
are used for locking countersunk screws.
•Either the internal diameter or external
diameter is serrated, the serrations being set
to bite into the component and nut to prevent
rotation.
•Shakeproof washers should only be used
once.
Tab Washers
•Tab washers are manufactured from thin
metallic sheet materials, to standard or
proprietary specifications, and have one or
more tabs projecting from the external
diameter; they may also be ganged for
locking two or more nuts. When the washer is
fitted, one tab (usually pre-formed) is
anchored against the component or fitted into
a hole provided for that purpose, whilst
another tab (or tabs) is bent against a flat or
flats of the nut, after the nut has been
correctly torqued.
•The component tab should not be bent
against a curved surface or across the
junction of two faces, since this would permit
movement of the nut or bolt.
Locknuts and Locking Plates
Locknuts:
•Generally, locknuts (also called "jam nuts" in
the UK and "check nuts" in the US) are thin
plain nuts which are tightened against
ordinary plain nuts or against components
into which male threaded items are fitted,
although proprietary locknuts are available
which are formed from sheet material. Control
rods, swaged-end cables and jack ram eye-
end fittings are common examples of the use
of locknuts, but in some instances wire or tab
locking is also specified.
Locking Plates
•Locking plates are usually manufactured
from steel. They are placed over hexagonal or
bi-hex nuts or bolt heads after these items
have been tightened down, and secured,
usually by a screw, to an adjacent part of the
structure.
•Locking plates may be used repeatedly
provided they remain a good fit around the
nut or bolt head.
•In certain instances, particularly where
vibration is likely, locking plate screws are
fitted with spring or shakeproof washers.

Wire Locking
General
•Wire Locking (also known as Lock Wiring
and Safety Wiring) is one of the most
commonly used methods of preventing
threaded elements from loosening.
•Corrosion resisting steel and heat resisting
nickel alloy are the materials normally
recommended for locking wire. Care should
be taken to ensure that the wire used is to the
correct specification.
• Attention should be paid to the following
when using locking wire:
• Use wire of the correct specification and
gauge.
• The wires must be twisted together so
that each wire is twisted around the other.
• The locking wire should be taut and there
should be no untwisted lengths in excess
of 3/8 in. and lengths of unsupported wire
should not exceed 3 inches.
• The angle of approach of the wire
should not be less than 45° to the
rotational axis of the component to be
locked. The line of approach should be
tangential to the parts being locked.
• Finish each run of locking wire with
approximately five complete twists of wire,
cut and double back to avoid fouling and
injury to personnel.
• When locking tabs are used, they should • Sharp edges of locking holes must be
be fitted in such a way that the tabs and removed and there must be no obstruction
the wire are in complete alignment. by the locking wire of any moving parts,
• Locking wire is used only once. controls, etc.
• Sometimes controls or switches are wire • All off-cuts and used locking wire must be
locked into their normal operating position removed from the aircraft or component
using thin copper wire. Selection of an and disposed of safely.
emergency position necessitates
physically breaking the wire.
• The wire must be adequately tensioned;
over-tensioning may lead to fracture of the
wire, or of the metal around the locking
hole.
• In the normal twisting method of wire
locking, a suitable length of wire should be
cut from the coil and passed through the
hole provided for the purpose in the
component.
• The wire should be twisted over the length
required to reach the locking point, through
which one end of the wire should be
passed, and then twisted for not less than
a further ½ inch (13 mm)
Wire Locking Procedure
• In the double twisting method, a suitable
length of wire should be cut from the coil
passed through the hole provided for the
purpose of the component to be locked.
• The wire should be twisted over the length
required to reach the locking point through
which one end of the wire should be
passed and then twisted for not less than
half an inch whilst being pulled taut, it is
then cut and made safe by forming an
open loop.
• When using pliers to pull or twist the
locking wire great care must be taken to
avoid damage to the wire. Any wire
damaged during installation will be
weakened and must be replaced.
• Some wire locking is done with a single
strand of the specified wire, particularly in
instances of a complete ring or similar
formations of lightly loaded nuts or bolts
such as those which retain a data plate.
The wire is passed in sequence through
the nut slots and bolt/stud holes around
the formation until the wire ends meet. The
ends are cut to suit and twisted together to
tension the loop. The wire direction
through all nuts must be such that any
loosening of a nut will further tension the
wire.
 • When locking tabs are used, they should
Locking Tabs be fitted in such a way that the tabs and
the wire are in complete alignment.
• In instances where the method of wire Examples of correct and incorrect use of
locking is not indicated on the drawing, locking tabs are shown below.
great care is necessary when deciding on • Whenever possible, the closed end of the
a locking method to ensure that there is no wire should be in the tab and the open end
possibility of the parts becoming loose. at the component to be locked.
• For example, when adaptors are used in
pipe joints, it is essential that the adaptor is
secured to each union nut by separate
locking wires to adjacent corners of the
adaptor nut, with the approach angle
shown previously.
• It may be specified that the adaptor is
locked additionally to some external point.
Examples of Wire Locking
Wire Sealing (Tell-Tale Wire)
• In some instances flight deck controls or switches are wire locked into their normal operating
position and selection of an emergency position necessitates a conscious decision and the
physical breaking of the wire.
• A thin, frangible copper wire is usually specified for this purpose. The method of installing
this type of locking, usually known as “wire sealing‟, is normally detailed in the appropriate
Maintenance Manual.

• Typical examples include:

• Hand held Fire Extinguishers

• First Aid kits
• Portable Oxygen bottle regulators
Peening (Peening is the process of working a metal's surface to improve its material
properties, usually by mechanical means, such as hammer blows, by blasting with shot
(shot peening) or blasts of light beams with laser peening.)

•The peening of bolts for locking purposes should only be carried out when specified in the
drawing, or the relevant manual, as the operation prevents re-use of the nut and bolt and may
cause difficulty in dismantling. About 1½ threads of the bolt should be projecting and the
peening carried down to the nut to prevent it slackening.
•Adequate support should be given to the bolt during the peening operation and care taken to
prevent damage to the part by misdirected blows with the hammer. Countersunk screws may
be locked by the method illustrated below when the thread is inaccessible. Protective treatment
damaged by the peening operation must be restored.
Grub Screws (Grub Screws are also
commonly known as Socket Set Screws.
These type of screws are generally used to
secure an object against or within another
object (not usually using a Nut). These can
be used to secure parts like, Shafts,
Pulleys and Gears)
•These are used as a method of locking two
threaded components together.
•In one method the outer component only is
drilled and threaded and the grub screw may
be machined at the inner end to a tapered
point or a parallel plain shank to fit either a
conical recess or parallel hole in the inner
component.
•Grub screws may be locked by peening, by a
wire type locking ring or by means of a nylon
insert or adhesive patch in either the male or
female thread.
Locking by Adhesives • When using Araldite it is good practice to
mix a separate sample under similar
•Many small components, particularly those in conditions, to check that it hardens within
instruments, valves, switches, etc., may be the specified time period. Threaded metal
locked by the application of Shellac, Araldite fasteners may also be locked using a liquid
or similar materials to DTD 900 specifications. sealant such as Loctite.
•The adhesive is applied to the outside of the
nut face and protruding screw thread, or the
component and screw head, after tightening,
and prevents movement between the two
parts.
Pins
General
•Taper pins with taper of 1 in 48 and parallel
pins, are used on both tubular and solid
sections, to secure control levers to torque
shafts and forked ends to control rods, etc.
•Most taper pins, and parallel pins, are locked
by peening into a countersunk recess or by
forming reaction rivet heads.
• To avoid slackness, the pins are usually
assembled in reamed holes, the head
being supported during the locking
process.
• Careful inspection is required after fitment
of pins through hollow tubes, to ensure
that undue force during the peening
operation has not bent the pins, and thus
impaired the security of the fittings.
• To fit a taper pin, a hole less than the small
diameter is drilled in the tube.
• It is then enlarged by the correct size
taper pin reamer so that the small end of
the taper pin, when pushed through the
hole, is flush with the surface.
• The taper pin is then driven into position,
ensuring that the component is adequately
supported.
Clevis Pins
•Clevis Pins are flat headed parallel pins
which are drilled at the end of the shank to
accommodate a retention device.
• Made of high tensile or stainless steel, they
are usually used in conjunction with split pins,
lock pins or safety retaining pins as illustrated.
“Pip” Quick Release Pins
• “Pip” pins are designed to take non-
structural loads in shear only.
• In many cases they can take the place of a
nut and bolt in circumstances where
constant and speedy disconnection is
required.
• The holes that these pins are fitted in need
to be reamed to a close fit to prevent
chafing due to vibration in service.
• The pin is held in place by two small steel
balls at the end of its shank.
• These balls are held out in the locked
position by a spring loaded plunger
running through the centre of the pin.
Circlips and Locking Rings
• Many of these locking devices are
standard parts manufactured from spring
steel wire, sheet or plate, but they may
also be specially designed for a particular
application.
• All are hardened and tempered to give
inward or outward spring for locking
screwed parts together, for locking grub
screws, or for locating components within
bores or housings.
• Wire circlips have both ends bent whilst
other types have drilled ends which
facilitate expansion or contraction for fitting
into position.
• The installation of circlips is usually
accomplished with circlip pliers as shown
below. These are produced as both
internal and external models and also
reversible duel purpose tools. They are
available in different sizes and some have
interchangeable nibs. It is important to
select the correct size of tool and nib for
your own safety and to prevent damage to
the circlip.