Psychological Aspects of Later Adulthood

Chapter 15

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 Learning Objectives
• 1. Describe the developmental tasks of later adulthood
• 2. Understand theoretical concepts about
developmental tasks in later adulthood
• 3. Summarize theories of successful aging
• 4. Understand the impact of key life events on older
people
• 5. Understand guidelines for positive psychological
preparations for later adulthood
• 6. Summarize material on grief management and death
education

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• Developmental Tasks of Later Adulthood

Most of the developmental tasks that older people encounter are psychological
in nature.
o Retirement and lower income.
o Living with one’s spouse in retirement.
o Affiliating with individuals of one’s own age group or with associations for
older people.
o Maintaining interest in friends and family ties.
o Continuing social and civic responsibilities.
o Coping with illness and the loss of a spouse and/or friends.
o Finding satisfactory living arrangements at the different stages of later
adulthood.
o Adjusting to changing physical strength and health and overcoming
bodily preoccupation.
o Reappraising personal values, self-concept, and personal worth in light
of new life events.
o Accepting the prospect of death.

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Theoretical Concepts About Developmental Tasks in
Later Adulthood
Integrity Versus Despair Three Key Psychological
(Erikson, 1963) Adjustments
– The attainment of integrity comes only after
1. shifting from a work-role preoccupation to
considerable reflection about the meaning
self-differentiation. Because retirement is a
of one’s life. Integrity refers to an ability to
crucial shift in one’s life, a new role must be
accept the facts of one’s life and to face
acquired.
death without great fear
2. shifting from body preoccupation to body
transcendence. Health problems increase
– Despair is characterized by a feeling of for older people, and energy levels
regret about one’s past and includes a decrease.
continuously nagging desire to have done 3. shifting from self-preoccupation to self-
things differently. Despair makes an attitude transcendence. The inevitability of death
of calm acceptance of death impossible, as must be dealt with.
those who despair view their lives as
incomplete and unfulfilled

– Men, particularly older men, are more apt to

complete suicide than are women and are
the group with the highest rate of suicides.

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 Theoretical Concepts About Developmental Tasks in
Later Adulthood
Life Review
● Most older persons conduct evaluative life
reviews in which they assess their pasts
and consider the future in terms of the
inevitability of death.
Self-Esteem
● Self-esteem (the way people regard
themselves) is a key factor in overall
happiness and adjustment to life.
Life Satisfaction
● Life satisfaction is a widely used index of
psychological well-being in older adults.
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Low Status and Ageism
● Older people suffer psychologically
because our society has been generally
unsuccessful in finding something
important or satisfying for them to do.
Depression
● The older person is often a lonely
person. Many people 70 years of age or
older are widowed, divorced, or single.
Spirituality and Religion
● Religion has been found to be an
important factor that promotes emotional
well-being in later life.
● The church has always been important
to most African Americans.
• Three Theories of Successful Aging: The Strengths
Perspective
Activity Theory
● The activity theory asserts that the more physically and mentally active people are, the more
successfully they will age.
● There is considerable evidence that being physically and mentally active helps to maintain
the physiological, psychological, and intellectual functions of older people.

Disengagement Theory
● The disengagement theory refers not only to older people withdrawing from a community, but
also to the community withdrawing from older people, or community disengagement.
● Such a disengagement is claimed to be functional for older people, as they are thought to
gradually lose the energy and vitality to sustain all the roles and social relationships they held
in younger years.
● There is controversy regarding whether disengagement is functional for older people and for
our society.
● A severe criticism of the disengagement theory is that it may be used to justify society’s
failure to help older people maintain meaningful roles

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Three Theories of Successful Aging: The Strengths
Perspective, cont.
Social Reconstruction Syndrome Theory
● According to Zusman, social breakdown occurs for older people because of the
effects of labeling.
● Society has unrealistic expectations that all adults should work and be productive;
younger people label older people as incompetent or lacking in some ways; older
people accept the label and view themselves in terms of the label; they then learn
behavior consistent with the label and downplay their previous skills.

● To break the vicious cycle of this labeling process, they recommend the social
reconstruction syndrome, which includes three major recommendations.
○ First, our society should liberate older people from unrealistic standards and
expectations.
○ The second recommendation of Kuypers and Benston (1973) is to provide
older people with the social services they need.
○ The third recommendation is to find creative ways to give older people more
control over their lives.

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• The Impact of Key Life Events on Older People

Marriage
● Couples who are still married in their later years are less likely than younger couples to see
their marriages as full of problems

Death of a Spouse
● The death of a spouse is traumatic at any age. It is more apt to occur in later adulthood, as
death rates are considerably higher in this age group.
● The surviving spouse faces a variety of emotional and practical problems.
Widowhood
● Because women tend to live longer than men and tend to be younger than their husbands,
they are more likely to be widowed.
● Widowed people of both sexes have higher rates of depression and mental illness than
married people.

Never Married
● Only about 5 percent of older men and women have never been married. Papalia and
Martorell (2015) cite research indicating that those who have never been married tend to be
more independent, have fewer social relationships, and express less concern about their age
than do older people who have been married.

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 The Impact of Key Life Events on Older People, cont.

Remarriage
● Our society has generally opposed the idea of older adults dating and remarrying.
● Married older people are happier than those who are living alone. They have companionship, can
share interests, provide emotional support, and can assist each other with household tasks.
● It is also cost-effective for society to support single older people in remarrying as they are then less
likely to need financial assistance and social services and are less likely to be placed in nursing homes

Gay and Lesbian Relationships

● Gay and lesbian relationships in later life tend to be diverse, but generally strong and supportive.
● Some older gays and lesbians are impacted by discriminatory acts by some persons, strained
relationships with family of origin, and insensitive policies of some social agencies.

Family System Relationships

● In most instances, older people and their adult children do not live together for a variety of reasons.
● Although most older people do not live with their children, they tend to live close to them and to see
them frequently.
● The tacit “norm of noninterference” by grandparents tends to evaporate in times of trouble faced by
their adult children and their grandchildren.

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 Guidelines for Positive Psychological Preparation for
Later Adulthood: The Strengths Perspective
Being healthy
Those older adults who are in relatively good health are much more apt to find later adulthood to be gratifying as
compared to those with a chronic illness.
Close personal relationships
Older people who have close friends are more satisfied with life.
Finances
When people feel good and have money, they can be more active.
Interests and hobbies
People who have meaningful hobbies and interests look forward to retirement in order to have sufficient time for these
activities.
Self-identity
People who are comfortable and realistic about who they are and what they want from life are better prepared to deal
with stresses and crises that arise.
Looking toward the future
A person who looks to the future generally has interests that are alive and growing and is therefore able to find new
challenges and new satisfaction in later years.
Coping with crises
If a person learns to cope effectively with crises in younger years, these coping skills will remain useful when a person
is older.

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 Grief Management and Death Education
People in primitive societies handle
death better than we do.
They are more apt to view death as a
natural occurrence, partly because
they have shorter life expectancies.
They also frequently see friends and
relatives die.
Because they view death as a natural
occurrence, they are better prepared
to handle the death of loved ones.
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The Cultural-Historical Context of
Death and Bereavement
● In ancient Greece, bodies of heroes were
publicly burned as a symbol of honor. Public
cremation is still practiced by Hindus in India
and Nepal.
● In contrast, cremation is prohibited under
Orthodox Jewish law, as it is believed that the
dead will rise again for a “last judgment” and
the chance for eternal life.
● Some Polynesians in the Tahitian Islands bury
their parents in the front yard of their former
home as a way of remembering them.
● Many Native Americans and Buddhists believe
that the living co-exist with the dead; a central
theme in all ancestor worship is that the lives
of the dead may have supernatural powers
over those in the living world—including the
ability of the dead to bless the living, curse the
living, and even taking the life of the living.
 Death in Our Society:
In our society, we tend to shy away from thinking about death. The terminally ill generally die in institutions (hospitals and
nursing homes), away from their homes.

Many people in our society seek to avoid thinking about death. They avoid going to funerals and avoid conversations
about death.

We need to become comfortable with the idea of our own eventual death. If we do that, we will be better prepared for the
deaths of close friends and relatives.

We will also then be better prepared to relate to the terminally ill and to help survivors who have experienced the death of
a close friend or relative.

Funerals are needed for survivors. Funerals help initiate the grieving process so that people can work through their grief.

Children should not be sheltered from death. They should be taken to funerals of relatives and friends and their questions
answered honestly.

It is much better to explain to children that death is a natural process. It is desirable to state that death is unlikely to occur
until a person is quite old, but that there are exceptions—such as an automobile accident.

Funerals help children learn that death is a natural process.

It is generally a mistake for survivors to seek to appear strong and emotionally calm following the death of a close friend
or relative.

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 The Grieving Process

The Grieving Process

● Nearly all of us are currently grieving about some loss that we have had.
● It is a mistake to believe that grieving over a loss should end in a set amount of time.
● The normal grieving process is often the lifespan of the griever.

When we first become aware of a loss of great importance to us, we are apt to grieve intensively—
by crying or by being depressed.

Gradually, we will have hours, then days, then weeks, then months when we will not think about the
loss and will not grieve.

However, there will always be something that reminds us of the loss (such as anniversaries), and
we will again grieve.

The intense grieving periods will, however, gradually become shorter, occur less frequently, and
decrease in intensity.

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How to Cope with Grief

Crying is an acceptable and valuable expression of grief.

Talking about your loss and about your plans is very constructive.
Do not become concerned if you begin questioning your beliefs. Talk about them.
Writing out a rational self-analysis on your grief will help you to identify irrational thinking that is contributing to
your grief
Try not to dwell on how unhappy you feel. Become involved and active in life around you.
Seek to accept the inevitability of death—yours and that of others.
Seek to spend these days with family and friends who will give you support around holidays or anniversaries.
Seek to find assurance in the fact that a sense of purpose and meaning will return.
If you become ill, seek a physician’s help, and tell him or her that your illness may be related to grief you are
experiencing.
Medication should be taken sparingly and only under the supervision of a physician. Avoid trying to relieve your
grief with alcohol or other drugs.
Recognize that guilt, real or imagined, is a normal part of grief.
You may find that friends and relatives appear to be shunning you.Take the initiative and talk with them about
your loss.
If possible, put off making major decisions (changing jobs, moving) until you become more emotionally relaxed.

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Figure 15.1 Westberg Model of the Grieving
Process

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– Application of Grief Management Theory to Client
Situations

– Social workers may take on a variety of roles in the areas of grief

management and death education.
▪ They can be initiators of educational programs in schools, churches, and elsewhere for the
general public.
▪ They can be counselors in a variety of settings (including hospices, nursing homes, and
hospitals) in which they work on a one-to-one basis with the terminally ill and with survivors.
▪ They can be group facilitators and lead grief management groups (including bereavement
groups for survivors) in settings such as hospitals, hospices, mental health clinics, and schools.
▪ They may also serve as brokers in linking individuals who are grieving, or who have unrealistic
views about death and dying, with appropriate community resources.

– In order for social workers to be effective in these roles, they need to

become comfortable with the idea of their own eventual deaths.
– They also need to develop skills for relating to the terminally ill and to
survivors.

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 How to Relate to a Dying
Person
First, you need to accept the idea of your own eventual
death and view death as a normal process.
Second, tell the dying person that you are willing to talk
about any concerns that he or she has.
Third, answer the dying person’s questions as honestly as
you can.
Fourth, a dying person should be allowed to accept the
reality of the situation at his or her own pace.
Fifth, if people around the dying person are able to accept
the death, the dying person is helped to accept the death.
Sixth, if you have trouble with certain subjects involving
death, inform the dying person of your limitations.
Seventh, the religious or philosophical viewpoint of the
dying person should be respected.
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How to Relate to Survivors
It is very helpful to become accepting of the idea of your
own death.
You should seek to convey that you care, that you share
his or her loss, and that you’re available if he or she
wants to talk.
It is helpful to use active listening with both survivors
and persons who are terminally ill.
It is frequently helpful to share with a survivor pleasant
and positive memories you have about the person who
has died.
Continue to visit the survivors if they show interest in
such visits. It is also helpful to express your caring and
support through a card, a little gift, or a favorite meal.
The religious or philosophical viewpoint of survivors
should be respected.
 How to Become Comfortable with the Idea of Your Own
Eventual Death: The Strengths Perspective

We would be more comfortable with the idea of our own death if we could talk about it
more openly and actively seek answers to our own questions and concerns.

Identify what your concerns are and then seek answers to these concerns.

You may find that tactfully initiating discussions about death and dying with friends and
relatives will be helpful to you, and to people close to you.

In talking about death, it is advisable to avoid using euphemisms such as “passed on,”
“gone to heaven,” and “taken by the Lord.” It is much better to be accurate and say the
person has died.

Additional ways to become more informed about death and dying are attending
funerals; watching quality films and TV programs that cover aspects of dying; providing
support to friends or relatives who are terminally ill; being supportive to survivors;
talking to people who do grief counseling to learn about their approach; keeping a
journal of your thoughts and concerns related to death and dying; and planning the
details of your own funeral.

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Whether to Insert a Feeding Tube

New technology has made it possible for patients with irreversible brain
damage to be kept alive for decades.

A key component of keeping someone alive is the insertion of a feeding tube.

Once a feeling tube has been inserted, it is extremely difficult to obtain a court
order to have it removed.

Some patients have been kept alive in a chronic vegetative state for 10 to 15
years after a feeding tube has been inserted.

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 Life After Life
Several researchers have interviewed a number of people who have had near-death
experiences (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). The findings are remarkably similar.
Those interviewed had been pronounced clinically dead, but then shortly after were
revived.
The following description of typical experiences is a composite summary of what has
been found:
The person reports he remembers physicians are trying to revive him. He realizes his “spirit”
is leaving his body. His spirit watches the resuscitation attempt from “above.” His spirit then moves
away from the body, and goes through a tunnel. At the end of the tunnel a being of light appears.
This being of light is interpreted as being his God. For Christians, it is interpreted as being Jesus
Christ. This being of light is in front of his spirit, and there is a small border between him and the
being of light. Other people then come to welcome him—many of these people are the spirits of
friends and relatives who have preceded him in death. The being of light asks him a question,
which leads him to have a panoramic review of major events in his life. He finds this whole
experience to be enjoyable and peaceful.
He wants to cross the border and enjoy his new existence. However, he finds he must return
to his body, and he reluctantly returns. After he returns to his body, he becomes more peaceful, as
he now believes there will be an afterlife when his death does occur.

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