Magnetic Materials

Introduction:
 Magnetic materials are those materials in which state of magnetisation can be induced.
Such materials when magnetised create a magnetic field in the surrounding space.

 In a material all the molecules contain electrons which orbit around the nucleus; these
orbits are therefore, equivalent to circulating currents and so develop an m.m.f. Each
m.m.f. due to an individual orbit, in most molecules, is neutralised by an opposite
“one. But in magnetic materials such as iron and steel there are a number of
unneutralised orbits, such that a resultant axis of m.m.f. exists which produces a
magnetic dipole.

 In unmagnetised sepcimens, because of mutual attraction and repulsion among the dipoles,
the molecular m.m.f. axes lie along continuous closed paths, and no external magnetic
effect can be detected.

In magnetised specimens, the dipoles line up parallel with the exciting m.m.f. and when the
exciting m.m.f. is removed, a number of dipoles may aligned in the direction of the external
field and thus exhibit permanent magnetism.
 The readiness of a material to accept magnetism is expressed by its
permeability. For all materials except a few magnetic ones, the permeability is
that of free space and is constant. It is denoted by μ0 ( =4π x 10-7).

For magnetic materials the permeability equals μ0 times the relative permeability
which is denoted by μr(i.e. μ= μ0μr).

The relative permeability varies with the degree of magnetisation of the material
and may have a value as high as 2500.
TERMS CONNECTED WITH THE
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
1. Magnetic Force: It is the force exerted by one magnet on another either to attract it or repel it.

2. Unit Pole Strength: It is designed of that pole which when placed in vacuum at a distance of one metre
from a similar and equal pole, repels it with a force of one newton.

3. Magnetic Flux Density: It is usually represented by letter B and is defined as the flux or lines of
force passing per unit area through any substance through a plane at right angles to the direction of
magnetic flux; it is measured when Wb/m2 ( or T, i.e., Tesla).

4. Magnetic Field Strength: It may be defined in the following two ways:

- Field strength at any point within a magentic field is the number of lines of force passing through a
unit area round the point considered and held perpendicular to the lines.

- Field strength at any point within a magnetic field is the force exerted by a unit North pole at that
point.

5. Relaitve Permeability: It is the ratio of the flux density (B) produced in that material to the flux
density produced in vacuum by the same magnetising force (H). It is denoted by μ r.

6. Absolute Permeability: Absolute permeability of the material is the ratio of flux density in that
material to the magnetising force producing that flux density and is denoted by μ; μ = μ0 μr where μ0
is the permeability of free space having a value of 4π x 10-7 H/m.
 The magnetic potential at any point within a magnetic field is measured by the work
done in carrying a unit north pole from infinity to that point against the force of
magnetic field.

8. Intensity of Magnetisation: It is defined as the pole strength per unit area of the
bar or magnetic moment per unit volume of the bar. It is denoted by letter I.

9. Susceptibility: It is denoted by letter X and is defined as the ratio of intensity

of magnetisation (I) to magnetising force (H). In order words X = 1/H.

10. Magnetomotive Force: It is that force which drives or tends to drive the flux
through a magentic circuit. In short it is written as m.m.f. It is the product of
number of conductors (N) and current (I) pasing through them, i.e., m.m.f. = NI.
Magnetic Parameters
The various magnetic parameters are described below:

1.Magnetic Moment: It has been obsereved that a coil carrying a current I, when located in a
region of uniform magnetic flux density, will experience, in a torque whose magnetude depends
on the area of the coil, the current and the component of flux density in the plane of the
coil. The magnetic dipole moment is defined by the following relation:

pm + 1 x A

where pm = magnetic dipole moment-Ampere metre2 (A-m2) and is vector quantity,

I = current, and
A = area of the coil

A permanent bar magnet also experiences a torque when placed in a uniform field, which tends
to align it with the field. If the magnet is supposed to have free poles of opposite kind, we
can define the dipoles moment, as the product of pole strength and distance between them.
2.Magnetisation: It has been found that all materials are affected by the presence of a
magnetic field, in that they are found experimentally to acquire magnetic moments. The
magnitude of this moment per unit volume, called the magnetisation of the medium and is
described by the vector M.
The magnetisation M of a material may be expressed in terms of its elementary magnetic
dipole moments, pm by
M = Npm

where N is the number of magnetic dipoles per unit volume.

3.Magnetic Susceptibility:
The Eqn (8.7) can be written as
B =μ0 (1 + X) H = μ0 μr H
where μr = (1 + X) is defined as the relative permeability of the medium.

 The magnetic susceptability depends on the nature of the magnetic material and on its
state, i.e., temperature, etc. The susceptability of a sample may change on annealing after
cold work, it may again become -ve.

 The susceptability may be determined by measuring the force exerted on a magnetic material
when it is placed in a magnetic field. The susceptability of a ferromagnetic substance is
very strongly dependent on the field strength. Therefore, the magnetic properties of
ferromagnetic materials are best described by giving the magnetisation or the flux density
as the function of the field strength.

 For M-H and B-H curves of the ferromagnetic materials are very similar in nature. The slope
of the former when divided by the magnetic permeability, μ(=μ0 μr).

 For ferromagnetic materials the susceptability (or, the permeability)is not constant. It
has a low value at weak fields. As the intensity is increased, the susceptability
increases, reaches a maximum value and then begins to drop, ultimately reaching a constant
value on saturation.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC
MATERIALS
All materials posses magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree and these are
determined by the facts that (1) a magnetic field exert forces and torques on the bodies,
(2)a body placed in a magnetic field distorts the field. The magnetic properties of the
materials are characterised by their relative permeabilities. In accordance with the value of
relative permeability the materials may be classified in the following three ways:

1.Ferromagnetic Materials: The relative permeabilities of these materials are

much greater than unity and are dependent on the field strengths. They attract
the lines of force strongly [Fig. 8.1 (c)]. The classification. These have high
susceptability

2.Paramagnetic Materials: These have relative permeability slightly greater

than unity and are magnetised slightly. They attract the lines of forces
weakly [Fig. 8..1 (b)]. Aluminium, platinum and oxygen category.

3.Diamagnetic Materials: The relative permeability of these materials

is slightly less than unity. They repel the lines of force slightly
[Fig 8.1 (a)]. The examples are bismuth, silver, copper, and hydrogen.
PRINCIPAL FERROMAGNETIC
ELEMENTS
The principal ferromagnetic elements are dicussed below:

1.Iron:
 It has the highest susceptability comparatively. This property added with low cost makes
iron most suitable for commercial purposes.
 Its magnetic properties are considerably affected by the presence of traces of carbon,
oxygen, and nitrogen, therefore, these undesirable elements should be reduced to the
possible attainable limits. High purity permeability and reduced hysteresis loss. Its
permeability is to the tune of 2,000.

2.Nickel:
 It is also one of the important ferromagnetic elements. When it is heated,
it remains ferromagnetic up to 395oC and beyond that its gets converted to
paramagnetic.
 Its properties as ferromagnetic material are considerably improved when
alloyed with iron and cobalt. Its permeability is 300.
3.Cobalt:
 Its permeability is 250 and increases with the temperature up to 300 oC. It
loses its magnetic properties at about 1130oC.
 When in pure state it does not prove to be an important ferromagnetic
material.
 Its cost is adequately high.

The only elements which are strongly ferromagnetic at normal temperature are iron,
cobalt, and nickel. In Fig8.3 are shown typical normal-induction curves of annealed
samples of iron, nickel, and cobalt of comparatively high purity. These curves are
given only for the purpose of general comparison and should not be considered at
representing critical values. Small variations in the degree of purity or in the
annealing procedure lead to substantial differences in normal induction. It may be
noted that iron has greatest permeability, and this factor coupled with its low
cost makes it the only element of commercial importance by itself.
FERROMAGNETISM
The outstanding characteristic of a ferrmagnetic material is that it is very strongly
attracted by the magnet. Importance of iron as a magnetic material has led to the name
ferromagnetism. Magnetic properties even exist in the absence of applied magnetic field.

Ferromagnetism arises out of the electronic structure within the atoms. According to Pauli
exclusion priciple, not more than two electrons can occupy each energy level of an isolated
atom and the same holds true for atoms in a crystal structure. The two electrons having the
same energy levels have “spins” in opposite direction, and since each spinning electron can
be considered equivalent to a moving charge, each electron acts as an extremely small magnet
having north and south poles. A material having even number of electrons in general has as
many electrons spinning in one direction as in the other and the sum total effect is
magnetically neutral in structure. In case of a material with unfilled subvalence shell, more
eletrons spin in one direction than in other resulting in a net magnetic moment. [Fig. 8.4
(a)]. In materials like α- iron, cobalt, and nickel, these moments are quite strong and
atoms are sufficiently close togother so that there is spontaneous magnetic alignment of
adjacent atoms. These conditions cause ferromagnetism.
MAGNETIC DOMAINS
 A specimen of ferromagnetic material, according to Weiss, consists of a large number of
regions or domains which are permanently magnetized. The atomic moments in the individual
domains are all aligned parallel to one another at temperatures far below the Curie
point. Each domain is magnetically saturated and has a net magnetic moment. However, the
direction of the permanent magnetisation varies from domain to domain, and consequently
the resultant magnetisation may be zero, or nearly zero. Above the Curie temperature, the
domains may disrupt and the material may lose its ferromagnetic properties.

 Fig. 8.4 (b) shows domains in an unmagentized ferromagnetic substance.

 The domains exist in signle crystals as well as in polycrystalline samples. The
domains are separated by domain walls in which the spin direction gradually
changes from the preffered direction of one with zero resultant magnetic moment
is shown in Fig. 8.5.
 MAGNETISATION
 A feeromagnetisation substance is unmagnetised when the doamins are oriented at random.
In such a situation there is no m.m.f. across teh specimen, and it does not prodece any
magnetic field outside itself. Thus B and H are equal to zero?
 Consider a teroidal solenoid wound on a non-magnetic core, such as shown in Fig.8.7. If
the flux density is measured on the centre line of the teroid, the relationship between B
and H is given by the straight line OA in Fig. 8.8. If now the space within the teroid is
filled with an unmagnetized ferromagnetic material, the well known magnetisation curve
OBCDE, is obtained. The magnetisation has many names being reffered to as:
B-H curve, the magnetic saturation curve the virgen curve, or simply the saturation curve.
 PROPERTIES OF
FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS
The properties of ferromagnetic materials are divided into two distinct and
separate ranges in such a way that the properties above a particular
temperature are quite different from the properties below that temperature.
This temperature is known as ferromagnetic Curie temperature and is designed
by θf . The two cases considered below are:

Case 1: When T>θf

Case 2: When T<θf
Case 1: When T>θf
When the temperature is above Curie temperature, θf the properties of ferromagnetic
materials are similar to these of paramagnetic materials. Thus a ferromagnetic material
possesses a very small susceotability and hence very small magnetisation above θ f . In this
temperature region, the susceptability depends upon temperature according to a law called
Curie-Weiss law and the susceptability is expected to decrease with increase in temperature.

The Curie-Weiss law states that:

X = μr -1 = C/T-θ
where X = susceptability
C = Curie constant, and
θ = paramagnetic Curie temperature
Case 2: When T<θf

When the temperature of the material is below θf it exhibits normal behaviour and follows the
well known hyteresis curve shown in Fig.8.10.

 Considering the material to be virgin the flux starts building up from the origin as the
value of the magnetising force H is increased from zero. In this range B is nearly
proportional to H giving rise to constant permeability of the material. This permeability
is called the initial permeability since there is no hysteresis in this region.
 When H is further increased, the rate of increase of B falls and ultimately becomes zero
and the flux density B reaches a maximum value or saturation (B sat).
MAGNETOSTRICTION
 When a ferromagnetic material is magneitsed small changes in dimensions occur, the effect
being known as ‘magnetostriction’. The magnetostriction may be of the following three
types:

1. Longitudinal Magnetostriction: It is the change in length in the direction of

magnetisation. This change may be increase or decrease in length.

2. Transverse Magnetostriction: It is the change in dimension, perpendicular to magnetisation

direction.

3. Volume Magnetostriction: It is the change in volume resulting from the above two effects
PARAMAGNETISM
 Paramagnetism requires existence of permanent dipole moments paramagnetic susceptability
may be considered to be analogous to orientational susceptability associated with
dielectrics. In both cases the susceptability is positive and temperature dependent. Thus
the paramagnetic susceptability varies inversely with the absolutely temperature for
ordinary fields and temeratures.
DIAMAGNETISM
 The diamagnetic susceptability is very small and negative. This is seen in the repulsion
experienced by diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic field. Further since the
susceptability is determined by the electron structure of the system, it does not depend on
external conditions, such as temperature. It is additive just like molecular refractions.

 Particularly all organic substances are diamagnetic. Diamagnetism, however, is the little
practical importance because of the small value of diamagnetic susceptabilty.
MAGNITICALLY SOFT MATERIALS
The magnetically soft materials are characterised as follows:

I. They have high permeability.

II. The magnetic energy stored is not high.

III.They have negligible co-ercive force (due to which these are not suitable for making
permanent magnets).

IV. They have low remanence.

1.Pure or Ingot Iron:
 It has high permeability and increases with the stronger magnetising force.
 It has a low resistivity (due to which production of eddy currents is encouraged.
 To reduce the eddy currents it (pure iron) is rolled into thin sheets, as a result of which
is permeabilty decreases.
 It undergoes a considerable improvement in its magnetic properties when traces of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen are reduced to the minimum limit.
 In this material hysteresis loss is low.
 It is unsuitable for alternating currents.

2. Cast Iron:
 It has carbon above 2.5 percent.
 It is cheap but poor magnetic material.
 It finds its use in the structure of electrical machinery and frame work of D.C. machine.
3. Carbon Steels:
 The steels may be low, medium and high carbon steels depending upon the ppercentage of carbon content.
The low carbon steels in which percentage of carbon varies from 0.15 to 0.5 percent have properties
comparable to those of pure iron. If the of carbon is increased; it has following effects:

I. Resistivity is increased.
II. Saturation temperature is lowered.
III. Mechanical strength is improved.
IV. Permeability is decreased.
V. Co-ercive force and retentivity is increased.

4. Silicon Steels:
 A little addition of silicon to steel decreases permeability but reduces the hysteresis loss by
increasing the electrical resistance.
 Silicon improves magnetic properties.
 The presence of silicon imparts hardness and raises the elastic limit of steel.
 It is suitable for both A.C. and D.C. circuits and is used for the poles of motors and dynamos and
cores of transformers.
 The percentage of silicon varies for the armature steel upto 0.5, for motor and dynamo steel from 2.5
to 3.5 and for transformer steel from 4 to 5.

Note:Although silicon has less eddy current as well as hysteresis loss, dynamo steel is used for rotating
machinery because of mechanical properties, silicon steel being somewhat brittle; also dynamo steel is
expensive.
5. Manganese and Nickel Steels:

The addition of manganese and nickel to steel make it hard and almost non-magnetic. A high
nickel manganese cast steel is used for making cable boxes, meter cases and end rings of
turbo-alternators, for which non-ferrous metals are mechanically very weak and magnetic
materials unsuitable.
MAGNETICALLY HARD MATERIALS
Magnetically hard materials are used for making permanent magnets and have the following
characteristics.

1. They possess high value of BH product

2. High retentivity
3. High co-ercivity
4. Srong mangetic reluctance
5. Hysteresis loop is more rectangular in shape

For making permanent magnets steels containing carbon, tungsten,chromium or cobalt are
used. The carbon steels were used for this purpose, and they continue used in some apparatus
because of their lower cost. They have, however, the disadvantage of losing their residual
magnetism, particularly if subjected to vibration of high temperatures, and they cannot be
dependent on where constant strength is required as in the magnets if ‘D’ Arsonoval type
metres. Tugnsten and chromium steels have the same defect in lesser degree; cobalt steel is
the most satisfactory of those mentioned. More recently, alloys of iron, nickel, cobalt,
aluminium and copper have been developed which are superior in retentivity and co-ercivity to
any steel. These alloys are known as alnico.
1.Tungsten Steel:
 It contains 4.5 to 6% tungsten, 0.5 to 0.7% carbon and the remainder is iron.
 Saturation flux density = 1.2 Wb/m2.
 Coercivity = 8000AT/m.
 It has high magnetic reluctance.
 It has excellent water and shock resistance; it is quite-good in toughness too.
 It is also hard that it necessitates a special care during heat treatment, to avoid distortion and
cracks.
 When suitably hardened, it has a high value of BH product.

2. Cobalt Steel:
 It contains 34% cobalt, 5% chromium, 3.5% to 6% tungsten and remainder iron.
 Saturation flux density =2.4Wb/m2.
 Coercivity = 104AT/m.
 It is adequately hard and strong.
 It is one of the most satisfactory and efficient magnetic materials.
 It is expensive due to greater content of cobalt.
 It can be hot forged and machined after annealing.

3. Chromium Steel:
 It contains 2-6% chromium, 0.6-1% carbon, 0.3-0.5% manganese, remainder being iron.
 Saturation flux density = 1.5Wb/m2.
 Coercitivity = 7500AT/m.
 Its magnetic properties are of the same tune as that of tungsten steel.
 It has a reasonable degree of hardness and toughness.
 It requires a good amount of care during ‘hardening’ as due to high carbon content it is liable to
break.
 It possesses high magnetic properties.
 Magnets are manufactured either by casting or by sintering.

4. Alnico:
 It contains 18% nickel, 10% aluminium, 5%, copper, 15% cobalt and remainder iron.
 It is more expensive than Alni.
 Its magnetic properties are even better than Alni. In fact it is known as one of the best magnetic
materials.
 Its saturation flux density is 1.2 Wb/m2.
 Its coercivity is 105AT/m.
 It is available in many grades, each possessing varying properties.
 The permanent magnets formed from alloy are smaller in size and lighter in weight as compared to those
made from cobalt or tungsten steel.
 Alnico alloys are very hard and brittle, therefore, they cannot be machined and have to be cast to
shape and finished by grinding.
 It has a more rectangular hysteresis loop and high remanence.

5. Cunife:
 It contains 50% copper, 30% nickel and 20% iron.
 This alloy is malleable and ductile.
 It can be punched, machined and cold rolled.
 It is suitable for producing small-size magnets.
DESCRIPTION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Various Types of Iron
1. Vacuum-fused electrolytic Iron:
 Very pure iron may be made by remelting electrolytic iron in vacuum and subjecting it to annealng in
special atmoshperes.

2. Ingot Iron:
 Ingot iron is made by the open-hearth process and is refined to the highest degree commercially
attainable in large-scale production. A typical normal-induction curve of an annealed ingot-iron bar
is shown in III (Fig. 8.18).

3. Wrought Iron:
 Wrought iron is ferrous material, aggregated from a solidifying mass of pasty particles of highly
refined iron, into which is incorporated, without subsequent fusion, a quantity of slag. The minut
slag inclusions distinguish wroght iron from ingot iron or steel made by fusion process.

4. Mild or Low Carbon Steel:

 The effect of combined carbon on the magnetic properties of steel is adverse from the standpoint of
obtaining high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
 Open hearth steel of very low carbon content has magnetic properties comparable with those of wrought
iron and cast steel. It is used to considerable extent far laminated and solid magnetic parts but is
inferior to silicon steel as regards ageing and core losses.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE
 Iron is ferromagnetic upto about 790oC and above that point is paramagnetic. This critical temperature
is termed the Curie point. With weak magnetising forces, the permeability increases with temperatures
upto near this point. Under moderate magnetising forces, the permeability increases slightly in the
lower range of rising temperature, and then a point is reached above which it decreases rapidly toward
the critical point. Under strong magnetising forces, the permeability is not at first affected by
rising temperature, but after a certain point is passed, it decreases rapidly as the critical point is
approached.

AGEING
 Iron subjected to elevated temperature over long periods of time, as in transformer cores and rotors
in continuous operation, develops magnetic fatigue or ageing characteristics manifested by decreased
permeability and increased hysteresis loss. Prolonged heating at even so low temperature at 50 oC, if
continued for several seeks, will produce an appreciable effects. The effect increases with
temperature, and the increase hysteresis loss may exceed 110%.
‘HIGH-FREQUENCY MATERIALS’-APPLICATIONS

The ideal core materials for small reactors and transformers employed in communication
equipment should possess the following characteristics:
I. Constant permeability
II. Small hysteresis loss
III.Small eddy-current loss within the range of small magnetising forces and over the wide
range of frequencies met in such applications.

At the higher frequencies the control of eddy-currents becomes of primary importance, not
only to reduce losses but also to minimize skin effect produced by eddy-current shielding.
This is accomplished by the use of high-permeability alloys in form of wound cores of thin
tape, by the used of compressed powderes iron-alloy cores, or by sintered ferrites.
Comparison of these materials is given in Table 8.1.
FEEBLY MAGNETIC MATERIALS
 Feebly magnetic materials are not in themselves useful as electromagnet cores, they may be important
in such designs to provide structural members which are “nonmagnetic”. They are often employed to
reduce eddy-current heating and to reduce energy losses of such parts as rotor-coil binding wire,
shafts, bolts, filters, and pole supports castings.
 Austenitic 18-8 stainless steel, steels having 14% manganese with 1.25% carbon, 10%
manganese with 3% nickel and 0.7% carbon, and 18% manganese with 1.5% nickel and 0.3%
carbon are typical feebly magnetic materials supplied in wrought form. All have poor
corrsion resistance except the stainless steel. The high carbon manganese steels are also
hard to machine.
 As castings, Nomag with 11% Ni, 5.2% Mn, 2.7% C, is the only cast iron in use; 14% Mn with
1.2% C is recommended for steel castings where grinding is required; 10% Mn, 6% Ni, and
0.25% C and 18% Mn, 1.5% Ni and 0.3% C are steel alloys recommended when machining is
involved.
EDDY CURRENT LOSSES
 The term “eddy currents” is applied to those electric currents which circulate within a
mass of conducting material when the latter is situated in a varying magnetic field. The
conducting material may be considered as consisting of large number of closed conducting
paths, each of which behaves like a short circuited winding. The varying magnetic field
induces eddy e.m.fs in this closed elemental paths giving rise to eddy currents. This loss
is of considerable importance as it affects the efficiency and heating of electrical
machines.
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY AND HYSTERESIS LOSS
 When the crystals of a ferromagnetic material are cold worked, they experience deformation
as a result of which the material has very poor magnetic properties. Due to internal
strains on the domains, greater magnetic field is required to give a definite
magnetisation, as a consequence the permeability decreases and the hysteresis loss
increased. A material which has suffered magnetic damage due to cold work may be treated to
a suffeciently high temperature when the magnetic properties will be restored.

MEASUREMENT OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

The various methods are distinguished principally by the method employed to measure B, for
on most methods H is determined from the magnetising coil. B can be measured directly by
ballistic methods as in the fluxmeter permeameters or indirectly as in the traction
permeameters. The fluxmeter method is usually employed in the more accurate measurements. The
better known are the ring method, Burrows’ permeameter, and Fahy’s permeameter. In all
these methods the flux is measured with a ballistic galvanometer connected to a test coil
which is cut by the flux when the exciting current is reversed.
THE RING METHOD (PERMEABILITY TEST)

 This method, devised by Rowland, is one of the earlist methods of measuring the magnetic properties of
iron and is still used for small specimens which cannot be machined into rods or punched into strips
and for specimens to be tested at audio frequencies.
 Fig. 8.31 shows the connections diagrammatically. T is the specimen to be tested.
 THANK YOU
AND GODBLESS