The Urinary System

https://www.britannica.com/science/kidney
https://www.britannica.com/science/nephron

https://www.britannica.com/science/excretion/General-feature
s-of-excretory-structures-and-functions
https://www.britannica.com/science/osmoregulation
https://www.britannica.com/science/renin-angiotensin-system
https://www.britannica.com/science/ureter
https://www.britannica.com/science/urinary-bladder
https://www.britannica.com/science/urine

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/kidney-failure
• Urinary system has many roles - cleansing the blood and ridding the
body of wastes.

• In addition – it helps in:

– regulation of pH, blood pressure, concentration of RBCs, and vitamin D
production.

• If kidneys fail, these functions are compromised or lost altogether,

with devastating effects on body.
• Urinary system, is controlled by nervous system
• stores urine until a convenient time for disposal
• provides anatomical structures to transport this waste
liquid to outside of body.
• Urinary system - paired kidneys - filter blood to produce urine.

• Urine moves through ureters to urinary bladder - stored until release.

• When released, urine travels through urethra to outside world.

 Urinary System
• Two Kidneys
– Perform all functions except actual excretion.
• Two Ureters
– Convey urine from Kidneys to Urinary Bladder
• Urinary Bladder
– Holds Urine until excretion
• Urethra
– Conveys urine from bladder to outside of body
The Ureters • Slender tubes about 25 cm (10
“) long leaving each renal pelvis

• One for each kidney carrying

urine to the bladder

7
 Main Functions of Urinary System

• Kidneys filter blood to keep it pure

– Toxins

– Metabolic wastes

– Excess water

– Excess ions

• Dispose of nitrogenous wastes from blood

– Urea

– Uric acid

– Creatinine 8
 Main Functions of Urinary System

• Regulate the balance of water and electrolytes, acids and

bases

• Produce regulatory enzymes.

1. Renin – regulates BP/ kidney function

2. Erthropoeitin – stimulates RBC production from

marrow.
9
 Location of Kidney

• Lie against posterior abdominal wall at level

of T12-L3.
• Located behind abdominal cavity in a space-
Retroperitoneum
• Top of each kidney – adrenal gland (supra
renal gland)
• Right kidney is lower than left kidney due to
shape of liver.
 Structure

• Kidneys – bean shaped

• Weighs 125 – 175 g (males) and 115–155 g (females)

• 11–14 cm in length

• 6 cm wide
• 4 cm thick
 Structure
• Kidneys

– covered by fibrous capsule (dense, irregular connective tissue)

• helps to hold their shape and protect them.

• Fibrous Capsule
– covered by shock-absorbing layer - adipose tissue - renal
fat pad (encompassed by a tough renal fascia)
 Difference between Renal Fascia and Renal Capsule

• Renal capsule – surrounded by

renal fascia.
• Overlying renal fascia and between
this and transverse fascia is a
region of pararenal fat.
• Kidney capsule surrounds both
kidneys.
Renal Fiberous Capsule
• Renal fascia and overlying peritoneum serve to firmly anchor
kidneys to posterior abdominal wall in a retroperitoneal position.
• Each kidney – concave & convex surface.

• Concave surface – Renal Hilum - Renal artery enters, Renal vein &
Ureter leave.
• Kidney surrounded by tough fibrous tissue – Renal capsule
(surrounded by perinephric fat & paranephric fat)
 Kidney Anatomy

• Renal arteries and veins

• Renal cortex
• Renal medulla
• Nephron
• Renal pyramids (6-10)
• Renal papilla
• Calyx (ces)
• Renal pelvis
• Ureter
• Renal blood flow (RBF) of about 1200 ml/min is well

maintained (autoregulated) at blood pressures of 80 to

180 mm Hg.

• The cortex requires about 80% of blood flow to achieve its

excretory and regulatory functions, and the inner medulla

receives 15%.
• How much blood flows through the kidneys per

minute? - about 1 L/min

• Renal blood flow (RBF) is about 1 L/min.
• This constitutes 20% of the resting cardiac output through tissue that constitutes less than 0.5%

of the body mass!

• Considering that the volume of each kidney is less than 150

mL, this means that each kidney is perfused with over 3

times its total volume every minute.

 Internal Structure of Kidney

Kidney divided into 2 major structures

1. Superficial Renal Cortex

2. Deep Renal Medulla

• Cortex – outer layer of kidney-
extensions of cortex – renal
columns- pass into medulla.
23
Renal Column
Name the muscle in the walls of urinary bladder.
• Detrusor muscle (smooth muscle)
 Internal Structure of Kidney

• Medulla

– located – deep inside cortex,

– has triangular renal pyramids-

• oriented – bases –covered by cortex – their
tips renal papilla- project towards hilus
into- minor calyces of renal columns.
• Renal papilla – each pyramid – project - funnel
shaped – minor calyx- several join – major calyx
• Major calyces – join – renal

pelvis- expanded upper part of

ureter.
Renal Cortex
Renal Cortex
 Renal Medulla

https://www.chegg.com/flashcards/bios-1310-lab-7-87cb8fea-c348-4a06-a96a-cdec07c7a95c/deck
Major Calyx Minor Calyx
Renal Pelvis
• https://www.chegg.com/flashcards/bios-1310-lab-7-87cb8fea-
c348-4a06-a96a-cdec07c7a95c/deck
Urine passed – tiny droplets

tiny pores in papillae

minor calyces

major calyces

renal pelvis

ureter

urinary bladder for storage

 Blood Supply of the
Kidney & Nephrons

• Kidneys
 well vascularized
 receive about
25% of cardiac
output at rest.
 Blood enters kidney

Paired Renal arteries

formed directly from

descending aorta

Each Renal artery enters

kidney at renal hila
Two Capillary Beds in Series
The renal circulation is unusual in that it breaks into two separate capillary beds: the glomerular bed and the peritubular bed. These two
capillary networks are arranged in series, so that all of the renal blood flow passes through both. As blood leaves the glomerulus, the
capillaries coalesce into the efferent arteriole, but almost immediately the vessels bifurcate again to form the peritubular capillary network.
This second network of capillaries is the site where the fluid reabsorbed by the tubules is returned to the circulation. Pressure in the first
capillary bed, that of the glomerulus, is rather high (40 to 50 mm Hg), whereas pressure in the peritubular capillaries is similar to that in
capillary beds elsewhere in the body (5 to 10 mm Hg).
About one fourth of the plasma that enters the glomerulus passes through the filtration barrier to become the glomerular filtrate. Blood cells,
most of the proteins, and about 75% of the fluid and small solutes stay in the capillary and leave the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole.
This postglomerular blood, which has a relatively high concentration of protein and red cells, enters the peritubular capillaries where the
high oncotic pressure resulting from the high protein concentration facilitates the reabsorption of fluid. The peritubular capillaries coalesce
to form venules and, eventually, the renal vein.
 Two Capillary Beds in Series

Renal
Circulation
Breaks into 2 separate sets of capillary beds

1. Glomerular bed 2. Peritubular bed

These two capillary networks are arranged in a series

Renal blood flow passes through both beds

As blood leaves glomerulus, the capillaries unite into
efferent arteriole

efferent arteriole - immediately bifurcate to form

peritubular capillary network
Efferent
Arteriole
 Peritubular
capillary networ
k
- site where
fluid reabsorbed
by tubules is
returned to
circulation
Pressure in first

capillary bed –

glomerular bed is

high

(40 to 50 mm Hg)
 Pressure in

peritubular

capillaries is similar

to that in capillary

beds elsewhere in

body
About 1/4 of the plasma that enters glomerulus

passes through filtration barrier to become

glomerular filtrate
 • Blood cells
• most of the proteins
• 75% of the fluid
• small solutes

stay in the capillary and leave glomerulus via

efferent arteriole
 This post-glomerular
blood - has a relatively
high concentration of
protein and RBCs

enters the peritubular

capillaries
peritubular capillaries
- high oncotic
pressure
resulting from the high
protein concentration
facilitates the
reabsorption of fluid
The peritubular
capillaries unite to
form venules and,
eventually,
renal vein

oncotic pressure -
that pushes the
fluid into blood
capillaries.
 oncotic pressure - that pushes the fluid into blood capillaries.

• Oncotic pressure, also known as colloid osmotic pressure, is the

pressure exerted by the proteins in the blood plasma.
• Proteins in the blood, such as albumin, create an osmotic
pressure that draws water back into the capillaries.
Exchange in Capillaries

Exchange in Capillaries
Tissue Fluid
•Tissue fluid is a watery substance that bathes the cells of tissues. Tissue fluid is formed from blood plasma, the
fluid that moves out of capillaries.
•Tissue fluid is the fluid by which substances are exchanged between the blood and cells. It’s function is
to supply tissues with essential solutes in exchange for waste products between blood and cells at the site of
capillaries’ endothelial cells.
•Made up of substances which are small enough to escape through gaps in the capillaries wall. This includes
nutrients such as: oxygen, glucose, water, amino acids, fatty acids and ions.
Hydrostatic and Oncotic Pressure
•Hydrostatic pressure is the residual pressure from the heart beating created when blood is forced through the
capillaries.
•Oncotic pressure is when there is movement of fluid out of the capillaries (due to hydrostatic pressure), the water
potential of the capillaries becomes more negative (though this is usually stable).
•Becoming negative causes water to move down the water potential gradient. This is from the tissue fluid to blood
via osmosis.
•Some fluid can be pushed back into the capillaries by osmotic pressure. This is due to both tissue fluid and blood
having a negative water potential due to containing solutes.
•Tissue Fluid is less negative (in water potential) than blood, therefore it is positive in comparison. This is because
blood contains more solutes.
Below is a table outlining how high or low the pressures are at either end of the capillary:
Functions of Lymphatic System
•Lymphatic system carries back remaining tissue fluid not pushed back into capillaries. The fluid is now known
as lymphatic fluid. This process helps to prevent swelling by water retention.
•Lymphatic system contains lymph fluid. This is similar to tissue fluid’s content, though contains less nutrients due to its
main function being waste removal.
•Lymph fluid travels through the lymphatic system and finally drains back into the blood at the subclavian vein.
•Lymphatic system contains lymph nodes. These function to prevent bacteria and foreign materials entering the fluid.
•Lymph nodes produce antibodies. They empty the antibodies into the blood to help destroy and invading pathogens, part
of the immune system defences.
•Lymph glands remove bacteria and other pathogens too.
Tissue Fluid Formation and Return to the Circulatory System
Formed as a result of interplay between hydrostatic and oncotic pressure in the capillaries,
the process of tissue fluid formation is outlined below:
1.High hydrostatic (liquid) pressure exists at the arterial end of the capillary. The
hydrostatic pressure inside the capillary is higher than the hydrostatic pressure in the tissue
fluid.
2.This difference in pressure forces water and other small molecules out of the capillary,
forming tissue fluid. Proteins and cells stay inside the capillary because they’re too large to
leave.
3.The hydrostatic pressure in the capillary reduces as water leaves the capillary.
4.Water potential at the venule end of the capillary is lower than that of the tissue fluid.
This is due to the loss of fluid from the capillary and an increasing concentration of proteins
and cells that don’t leave the capillary.
5.Some of the tissue fluid re-enters the capillary from the venule end via osmosis. The
tissue fluid loses most of its oxygen and other nutrients to the cells but has gained carbon
dioxide and waste materials.
6.Excess tissue fluid is drained into the lymphatic system and then back into the
circulatory system.
→What is an exchange in capillaries?
Exchange in capillaries refers to the transfer of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and the tissues in
the body. This occurs through the walls of the smallest blood vessels, called capillaries, which are located near the body’s
cells.
→How does exchange in capillaries work?
Exchange in capillaries works through a process called diffusion, where substances move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. In the case of exchange in capillaries, oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the
blood into the tissues, and waste products diffuse from the tissues into the blood.
→What is the lymphatic system?The lymphatic system is a network of vessels, tissues, and organs that helps to
maintain fluid balance in the body and defend against infections. It consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the
spleen, thymus, and tonsils, among other structures.

Lymphatic vessels are similar to blood vessels, but they carry lymph, a clear fluid that contains immune cells and waste
products, instead of blood. The lymphatic vessels collect lymph from the body’s tissues and return it to the bloodstream,
helping to regulate fluid balance.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and trap bacteria, viruses, and other harmful substances.
The lymph nodes contain immune cells that can recognize and destroy these invaders, helping to prevent infections from
spreading.

The spleen, thymus, and tonsils are other parts of the lymphatic system that help to produce and store immune cells,
which can help to fight off infections. Overall, the lymphatic system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s
immune function and protecting against disease.
→What does the lymphatic system do?The functions of lymphatic system includes the following:

Maintaining fluid balance: The lymphatic system helps to regulate the amount of fluid in the body’s tissues by collecting
excess fluid and returning it to the bloodstream. Without the lymphatic system, the body would swell with excess fluid.

Fighting infections: The lymphatic system plays a vital role in the body’s immune response by producing and storing
immune cells, such as lymphocytes, and filtering out harmful bacteria and viruses from the lymphatic fluid. The lymph
nodes act as checkpoints, detecting and trapping foreign particles, and activating immune cells to destroy them.

Absorbing fats: The lymphatic system also absorbs dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins from the intestines and transports
them to the bloodstream.

Removing waste: The lymphatic system collects waste products and toxins from the body’s tissues and transports them to
the lymph nodes to be eliminated.
→What is a tissue fluid?Tissue fluid, also known as interstitial fluid, is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds the cells
and tissues of the body. It is derived from blood plasma and contains water, ions, nutrients, and waste products. Tissue
fluid plays an important role in providing nutrients to cells and removing waste products from them.

Tissue fluid formation happens when blood plasma is filtered through the walls of capillaries, the smallest blood vessels
in the body. This filtration process is driven by the pressure of the blood, which forces water and other small molecules
out of the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells. The tissue fluid then bathes the cells, delivering oxygen and
nutrients and collecting waste products.

After the tissue fluid has delivered its nutrients and collected waste products, it is collected by the lymphatic system and
returned to the bloodstream. This helps to maintain the balance of fluid in the body and ensures that the cells receive the
nutrients they need to function properly.
→How is tissue fluid formed in A-level Biology?Tissue fluid is formed by the process of ultrafiltration, which occurs in
the capillaries, the smallest blood vessels in the body.

The capillaries have walls that are made up of a single layer of endothelial cells, which are thin enough to allow small
molecules, such as water, oxygen, and nutrients, to pass through. Blood is under pressure as it moves through the
capillaries, and this pressure forces fluid out of the capillaries and into the spaces between the cells, known as the
interstitial spaces.

The fluid that enters the interstitial spaces is called tissue fluid. Tissue fluid contains water, oxygen, glucose, amino acids,
and other nutrients that are needed by the cells in the tissues. The tissue fluid also collects waste products, such as carbon
dioxide and urea, from the cells.
→Why is exchange in capillaries important?Exchange in capillaries is important because it allows for the proper
functioning of the body’s cells. Oxygen is needed for cellular respiration, while nutrients provide energy and building
blocks for the cells. Waste products, such as carbon dioxide, need to be removed to prevent toxicity.
→How does the structure of capillaries facilitate exchange?
The structure of capillaries is designed to facilitate exchange. Capillaries have a very thin wall, allowing for easy diffusion
of substances. They also have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, which increases the amount of exchange that can occur.
→What are the different types of exchange in capillaries?
There are two main types of exchange in capillaries: passive and active. Passive exchange occurs through diffusion and
does not require energy. Active exchange, on the other hand, requires energy and can move substances against a
concentration gradient.
→Can exchange in capillaries be affected by certain conditions?
Yes, exchange in capillaries can be affected by certain conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, and
diabetes. These conditions can damage the capillaries, making exchange less efficient, and potentially leading to other
health problems.
→What is hydrostatic and oncotic pressure?
Hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure are two types of pressure that affect the movement of
fluids across cell membranes and through blood vessels.

• Hydrostatic pressure - pressure exerted by a fluid on the walls of a container.

• In the context of the circulatory system, hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by
blood on the walls of blood vessels.
• Blood pressure is a type of hydrostatic pressure.
• Hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries is responsible for forcing water and solutes out of
the capillaries and into the interstitial spaces, where they form tissue fluid.
• Oncotic pressure, also known as colloid osmotic pressure, is the pressure
exerted by the proteins in blood plasma.
• Proteins in the blood, such as albumin, create an osmotic pressure that
draws water back into the capillaries.
• This is because proteins are too large to pass through the capillary walls and
into interstitial spaces.
• As a result, water is drawn back into the capillaries by the oncotic
pressure, which helps to prevent excess fluid accumulation in the tissues.
• Hydrostatic and oncotic pressure are important in maintaining fluid
balance in body.
• If the hydrostatic pressure is too high, fluid can accumulate in the tissues,
leading to edema.
• If the oncotic pressure is too low, fluid can be drawn out of the blood vessels
and into the interstitial spaces, also leading to edema.
• The balance between these pressures is essential for maintaining normal fluid
balance in the body.
Renal Vasculature
One should note that the renal circulation is unique in several aspects (Table 3.1). First, the kidney receives approximately 20–25% of the
cardiac output even though it is less than 1% of body weight (Thomson & Blantz 2007). Blood flows through most organs to provide
oxygen and nutrients but blood traverses through the kidney primarily to be cleansed. Second, there are no anastomoses between the
segmental branches of the renal artery (Figure 3.4) (Kriz & Kaissling 2007). Occlusion of these rather proximal yet terminal arteries will
create a segmental infarction. Third, this high-magnitude blood flow courses through a countercurrent system where arterial blood is
brought into close proximity with venous blood flowing in the opposite direction (Kriz & Kaissling 2007). This creates one of the largest
functional arteriovenous shunts in any organ circulation. This is best exemplified by the fact that O 2 extraction by the kidney is only about
10–15% compared to skeletal muscle, which is 35% at rest, 75% at exercise, and up to 90% for a trained athlete at peak exercise (O’Connor
2006). However, despite this seemingly ‘luxurious’ O 2 supply, because of the functional arteriovenous shunt, O 2 tension can dip below
50 mmHg in deep cortex (Brezis et al 1989). This has been touted as one explanation for the kidney’s propensity for ischemic damage.
Fourth, the renal circulation is the only one that has two capillary circulations in tandem (Figure 3.4) (Kriz & Kaissling 2007). Both the pre-
and post-capillary blood vessels in the glomerular circulation are arterioles. The efferent arteriole is structurally and functionally not a
venule as it promptly ramifies into the peritubular capillaries. In addition, the peritubular capillaries that embrace the proximal tubule in
cortex are quite distinct from the vasa recta system that travels down and back up the medulla.
 Renal
Vasculature
Renal circulation is unique in several aspects:

Kidney receives approximately 20–25% of the cardiac output even

1. though it is less than 1% of body weight

Blood flows through most organs to provide oxygen and nutrients but
2. blood traverses through the kidney primarily to be cleansed
 Blood Supply of the Kidney & Nephrons
Inside kidney

each renal artery

first divides into

segmental arteries

further branches to form

interlobar arteries

interlobar arteries pass through

renal columns to reach cortex
 Interlobar arteries branch
into

cortical
arcuate
radiate
arteries
arteries

afferent
arterioles
 Afferent arterioles

deliver blood into a modified

capillary bed called glomerulus

Glomerulus - component of
“functional unit” of kidney called
Nephron
Descending Aorta renal arteries

segmental arteries

interlobar arteries

arcuate arteries cortical radiate arteries

afferent arterioles

deliver blood into glomerulus

 5 6
4

1. renal arteries
2. segmental arteries
3. Interlobar arteries
4. arcuate arteries
5. cortical radiate arteries
6. afferent arterioles 69
• 1.3 million nephrons in each kidney - function - filter

blood.

• Once nephrons have filtered blood, renal veins return

blood directly to inferior vena cava.

 A portal system is formed

when blood flows from glomerulus to efferent arteriole

through a second capillary bed - peritubular capillaries (and

vasa recta)

surrounding PCT and DCT and loop of Henle

 Most water and solutes are recovered by second capillary bed
(peritubular capillaries )

This filtrate is processed and finally gathered by collecting ducts that

drain into minor calyces, which merge to form major calyces

filtrate then proceeds to renal pelvis and finally ureters

Human Kidney
 Nephron

• Nephrons - “functional units” of kidney;

• cleanse blood of toxins and balance the constituents of circulation to
homeostatic set points through processes of filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion.
• The nephrons also function to
• control blood pressure (via production of renin),
• red blood cell production (via the hormone erythropoetin),
• calcium absorption (via conversion of calcidiol into calcitriol, the
active form of vitamin D).
 Nephron
• Basic structural & functional unit.
• Blood processing unit - to produce urine.
• 1 million per kidney.
• Chief function – regulate – concentration – H2O, Na salts.
• Eliminates – wastes, regulates blood volume, blood pressure , blood pH &
electrolytes level.
• Regulated by endocrine hormones- Aldosterone, parathyroid hormone
(enhances active reabsorption of Ca, Mg from DCT & thick Ascending Limb –
Henle’s loop)
 Nephron

a blood supply
Each nephron has
a specialized network of ducts
called a tubule

glomerulus is fed by
an afferent arteriole
 Glomerulus • Filters blood to produce a fluid - filtrate

which is caught by nephron tubule.

Glomerular/Bowman’s capsule

• Proximal end of tubule that

surrounds glomerulus and catches

filtrate
 Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus and glomerular capsule together

 Filtrate caught by glomerular capsule

Travels through rest of tubule through:

1. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

2. Loop of Henle (Descending and Ascending Limb)
3. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
4. Common collecting ducts shared by many nephrons
• Cortical Nephrons – these nephrons have short loops of Henle

that do not dip far beyond cortex.

• Juxtamedullary Nephrons - About 15 % of nephrons have very

long loops of Henle that extend deep into medulla

Blood exits glomerulus into efferent arteriole.

Efferent arteriole forms a second capillary network

around tubule - Peritubular capillaries.

For Juxtamedullary

nephrons, portion of

capillary that follows loop

of Henle deep into the

medulla is called Vasa

Recta. Vasa Recta

• Most water and
solutes are recovered
by this second
capillary bed.
• As glomerular filtrate progresses through tubule, these
capillary networks recover most of solutes and water, and
return them to circulation.
• Since a capillary bed (the glomerulus) drains into a vessel
that in turn forms a second capillary bed, this is another
example of a portal system (also seen in hepatic portion of
digestive system).
• A Portal system is formed:

when blood flows from Glomerulus to Efferent arteriole

through a second capillary bed - Peritubular capillaries

(and vasa recta), surrounding PCT & DCT and loop of

Henle.
• Once inside kidney, each Renal Artery first divides into
Segmental arteries – which branches to form interlobar arteries –
which reach cortex.
• Interlobar arteries - branch into
Arcuate arteries,
Cortical Radiate Arteries, and
Afferent Arterioles.
oAfferent arterioles - deliver blood into Glomerulus which is a
component of the “functional unit” of kidney called Nephron.
• 1.3 million nephrons in each
kidney and they function to filter
blood.
• Once nephrons have filtered blood:
• Renal Veins return blood directly
to Inferior Vena Cava. vasa recta
Filtrate Processed

Gathered by collecting ducts

drains into minor calyces, which merge

to form major calyces

filtrate then proceeds to renal pelvis

and finally to ureters
 Microanatomy of the Nephron

Renal Corpuscle

Glomerulus and Glomerular capsule

 Glomerulus

high pressured, fenestrated capillary with large holes

(fenestrations) between endothelial cells

Glomerular capsule captures the filtrate created by

glomerulus and directs this filtrate to PCT
• Fenestrated capillaries are tiny blood vessels.
• They have small pores, or “windows,”
• These little holes increase the flow of nutrients,
waste and other substances.
• They allow them to move from the capillaries to the
organs surrounding them.
 What are the layers of Glomerular/Bowman's capsule?

Made up of two layers

outer - parietal layer Inner - visceral layer

simple squamous epithelium podocytes

cover the glomerular capillaries

uniquely shaped cells with finger-like arms (pedicels)

• A thin basement membrane present between glomerular
endothelium and podocytes.
• Pedicels interdigitate to form filtration slits, leaving small gaps that
form a sieve.
Blood passes through glomerulus

10 to 20 % of plasma filters out of

fenestrations These
features
through basement membrane and
comprise the
between these sieve-like fingers
filtration
Filtrate captured by glomerular membrane
capsule and funneled to PCT
• The filtration membrane prevents
• passage of blood cells,
• large proteins, and
• most negatively charged particles
• but allows most other constituents through
• substances from 4 nm - 8 nm in size can pass freely
A nanometer is 80,000 times thinner than a human
hair and is equivalent to the billionth of a meter
• Negatively charged particles have difficulty leaving blood

• because proteins associated with the filtration membrane

are negatively charged,

• so they tend to repel negatively charged substances and

allow positively charged substances to pass more readily.
 Mesangial cells

Present in filtration membrane

Ability to contract to help regulate rate of filtration of glomerulus

a filtrate that does not contain cells

or large proteins
The result is creation of:
and a filtrate has a slight
predominance of positively charged
substances
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

Filtrate collected by Bowman’s capsule enters into PCT

Simple cuboidal cells with microvilli on surface, forming

a brush border
 Microvilli

Most essential function of this portion (PCT) of nephron

Create large surface area to maximize absorption and secretion of

solutes in filtrate (Na+, Cl–, glucose, etc.)

These cells actively transport ions across their membranes

So they possess a high concentration of mitochondria in order to

produce sufficient ATP
 Loop of Henle

Descending & Ascending portions of

loop of Henle - continuations of same
tubule

Run adjacent and parallel to each

other

Make a hairpin turn at deepest point

of their descent
Descending thick portion and Ascending thin portion

consists of simple cuboidal epithelium

 Descending loop of Henle – initial short thick portion

Ascending loop of Henle – long thin portion

These are important differences, since different portions of loop have

different permeabilities for solutes and water

 Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
simple cuboidal epithelium, and shorter than PCT

These cells are not as active as those in PCT

fewer microvilli their surface

These cells also pump ions against their concentration gradient

Large numbers of mitochondria are found in these cells, but fewer than
in PCT
 Collecting Ducts
are continuous with nephron but not technically part of it

each duct collects filtrate from several nephrons for final

modification
Collecting ducts merge as they descend deeper in medulla to form about 30
terminal ducts, which empty at a papilla

simple cuboidal epithelium to facilitate water transport

Collecting Ducts contd…
• Each receives urine from several
nephrons

• Run straight through cortex into the

deep medulla

• At papilla of pyramid ducts join to form

larger papillary ducts
• Empty into minor calices
• Role: conserve body fluids
114
 Collecting ducts
• When the body must conserve water, the posterior pituitary gland
secretes ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
• ADH increases the permeability of collecting tubules and DCT to
water so more is reabsorbed
• This decreases the total volume of urine

• Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH, so less water is reabsorbed

producing copious amounts of dilute urine (can cause dehydration)
115
 Mesangial cells

Present in filtration membrane

Ability to contract to help regulate rate of filtration of glomerulus

a filtrate that does not contain cells

or large proteins
The result is creation of:
and a filtrate has a slight
predominance of positively charged
substances
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)

Lies just outside Bowman’s capsule & Glomerulus

Found at the junction of:

• Afferent & Efferent Arterioles

• Bowman’s capsule
• Initial part of DCT

JGA comes into direct contact with arterioles,

structure that feeds glomerulus
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)

Wall of DCT at that point forms a part of JGA known as Macula Densa.

Macula Densa - this cluster of cuboidal epithelial cells monitors fluid

composition of fluid flowing through DCT.
 In response to concentration of Na+ in fluid
flowing past them, these cells release paracrine
signals
Macula
Densa
have a single, nonmotile cilium that responds
to rate of fluid movement in tubule

macula densa cells regulates renin release from

juxtaglomerular cells of afferent arteriole

A system called “paracrine signaling” allows cells to communicate with each other by
releasing signaling molecules that bind to and activate surrounding cells.
 Renin is a protein

initiates production of Angiotensin II

acts as a powerful systemic vasoconstrictor

and stimulates release of hormone aldosterone from adrenal

cortex
• Wall of DCT at that point forms a part of the JGA known as Macula Densa
• Macula Densa - this cluster of cuboidal epithelial cells monitors fluid composition of fluid
flowing through DCT.
 Granular cell or JG cell

is the second cell type in JGA

modified, smooth muscle cell lining afferent arteriole

that can contract or relax in response to ATP or adenosine released by Macula Densa

Such contraction and relaxation regulate blood flow to glomerulus

Juxtaglomerular cells also produce renin which initiates a cascade of events to control
systemic blood pressure
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus

• Regulation of blood pressure

• Granule (jg cells) – modified muscle
cells secreting renin in response to
falling blood pressure in afferent
arteriole (below 70mm Hg)
• Macula densa – chemoreceptors
which secrete renin if solute
concentration falls
123
 Juxtaglomerular apparatus

- Renin activates Angiotensin – I - converted – Angiotensin – II -

with the help of enzymes present in plasma & other body tissues.
- Angiotensin – powerful vasoconstrictor, causes blood vessels to
contract – to raise BP.
- Angiotensin - stimulates – adrenals – secrete -aldosterone.

124
 Renin - angiotensin mechanism

Sequence of reactions resulting in aldosterone secretion

from adrenal cortex:

increases Na+ reabsorption from DCT:

water follows, blood volume increases and blood pressure

increases
 Glomerular
Filtration
occurs as blood passes into glomerulus producing a plasma-like filtrate
(minus proteins)

gets captured by Bowman’s capsule and funneled into renal tubule

filtrate becomes highly modified along its route through nephron tubule

finally produces urine at the end of collecting duct

 Tubular Reabsorption

As filtrate travels along length of nephron

cells lining tubule selectively, and often actively, take substances from filtrate

and move them out of tubule into blood

Glomerulus is simply a filter and anything suspended in plasma

that can fit through holes in filtration membrane can end up in
filtrate
 Tubular Reabsorption contd…

This includes very physiologically important molecules such as:

• water, Na, Cl, and HCO3

• glucose and amino acids.

 Tubular Reabsorption contd…
These molecules would be lost in urine if not reclaimed by tubule
cells

These cells are so efficient that they can reclaim all of glucose and
amino acids

Reabsorbs upto 99 % of water and important ions lost due to

glomerular filtration

Filtrate that is not reabsorbed becomes urine at base of collecting

duct
 Tubular Secretion

occurs mostly in PCT and DCT where unfiltered substances moves from
peritubular capillary into lumen of tubule

Secretion usually removes substances from the blood that are too large to be
filtered (ex: antibiotics, toxins) or those that are in excess in the blood
(ex: H+, K+).

substances secreted into tubule are destined to leave the body as components
of urine
Summary:
1.Urine is formed through a modified capillary fluid exchange between the blood and
the nephron.
2.Filtration: Filtrate enters the nephron from the Glomerulus (very high pressure).
3.Filtration: Water, NaCl, Glucose, H+, Urea/Uric acid, enter nephron.
4.Reabsorption – Proximal Tubule: Selective reabsorption of glucose, amino acids,
and Na+ (this is active transport – takes energy) Cl- passively follows.
5.Reabsorption – Loop of Henle: Descending loop – water leaves nephron (osmosis),
enters blood.
6.Reabsorption – Loop of Henle: Ascending loop – Na+ leaves nephron enters blood
(lower, thin section – Na leaves passively, higher, thick section – Na+ leaves with
active transport.
7.Secretion (Tubular excretion): Occurs in distal convoluted tubule.
8.Active Transport of Urea, Uric acid, excess K+, vitamin C, drugs, H+ back into the
nephron.
 Urine formation
Kidney
 Excrete urine
 Maintain water, slats, ions, electrolytes, BP
 Produce hormone
Nephron (Anything related to kidney – Renal) , 1 million in each kidney
 Renal cortex and Renal Medulla

Renal Medulla
o comes from middle of kidney
o very important role
o actual filtration and excretion of waste
Nephron- super tubules that dip into medulla, are microscopic tubules are
jammed inside the nephron
 Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole - away

Squeezing stuffs out of blood

Afferent arteriole - towards

Generally, when blood vessel leaves the cell, it is vein but in kidney, pressure is needed
to produce urine, arteriole system has high blood pressure.
Tubules jammed inside the nephron
 Podocytes-porous

Filtrate not urine because it has Na, glucose, amino

acids

Filtrate – is the substance squeezed out of the blood

Filtrate is the solute having micro molecules and not RBCs, and other large
macromolecules/they don’t get filtered.
 Loop of Henle – makes medulla Salty – actively pumping salts – Na, K, Cl ions out to
make entire medulla salty

Filtrate

H2O Cl
Na
Not permeable to H2O
Permeable to H2O H2O
Na
H2O K

• H2O is hard for protein to act upon/it can

Descending limb permeable to H2O it moves
not be carried by protein
out because outside it is salty
• But biological system good at pumping out
ions using ATP
 Permeable to H2O Not permeable to H2O
H 2O

All ions move out and

Na
make the medulla
H 2O K salty

H 2O Cl-

H 2O

H 2O
Salty medulla hypertonic –since outside it is hypertonic, H2O • AL part permeable to salts not to H2O
automatically moves outside/is absorbed in the DL part • DL part permeable to H2O
Hence, DL is long – so that more time is required to absorb
H 2O
 CT
DCT • Again dips into salty medulla
• Very porous allows only H2O to
leave the tubule because it dips
Cortex into medulla
• H2O automatically moves into
medulla making urine more
CD concentrated
Medulla

CD
H 2O
DCT ADH
H 2O
H 2O
more reabsorption of H2O, Ca, NA, Mg, amino acids, glucose, and H 2O
make urine more concentrated
 Overview of renal physiology

1.Glomerular filtration
2.Tubular reabsorption
3.Tubular secretion
 Overview of renal physiology

1. Glomerular filtration

– Water, most of solutes in blood plasma move across the

wall of glomerular capillaries into glomerular capsule and

then renal tubule

 Overview of renal physiology

2. Tubular reabsorption

– As filtered fluid moves along tubule and through collecting

duct --- 99% of water -----useful solutes reabsorbed –

returned to blood
 Overview of renal physiology

3. Tubular secretion
– As filtered fluid moves along tubule and through collecting duct,
other material secreted into fluid such as wastes, drugs, and
excess ions – removed from blood
• Solutes in fluid that drains into renal pelvis remain in fluid and are
excreted
• Excretion of any solute = glomerular filtration + secretion - reabsorption
 Structures and functions of a nephron
Renal corpuscle Renal tubule and collecting duct

Afferent Glomerular
arteriole capsule

Fluid in Urine
1 Filtration from blood renal tubule (contains
plasma into nephron excreted
substances)
2 Tubular reabsorption 3 Tubular secretion
Efferent from fluid into blood from blood into fluid
arteriole

Blood
(contains
reabsorbed
Peritubular capillaries substances)

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Hormonal Regulation of urine formation
• Kidneys - maintain osmotic balance and blood pressure in body,

they also act in concert with hormones.

• Hormones – chemical messengers within body.

• Different regions of nephron bear specialized cells that have

receptors to respond to chemical messengers and hormones.

 Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

• Epinephrine and norepinephrine - released by adrenal medulla

– flight/fight hormones - released when body is under extreme stress.

• Kidney function is halted temporarily by epinephrine and

norepinephrine.
• act directly on smooth muscles of afferent arterioles – constrict-
blood flow into nephrons stops.
• These hormones - trigger renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system.
 Aldosterone
• Produced by adrenal cortex.
• Maintains - water balance by enhancing Na+ reabsorption and
K+ secretion, referred – as mineralocorticoid, a corticosteroid.
• Aldosterone release - stimulated by:
– decrease in blood Na+ levels
– decrease in blood volume
– decrease in BP
– increase in blood K+ levels
• Prevents loss of Na+ from sweat, saliva, and gastric juice
Aldosterone - stimulated by low BP, triggers a sequence of chemical release

When BP drops, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) - activated

Cells in JGA, detect drop in BP and release renin

Renin - secreted by juxtaglomerular complex - by Granular cells of Afferent and

Efferent arterioles.

Renin - enzyme, circulates in blood

 Renin reacts with a plasma protein produced by liver -
Angiotensinogen.

Renin cleaves Angiotensinogen to produce Angiotensin I - converted

into Angiotensin II in lungs.
 Angiotensin II functions as a hormone

Angiotensin II causes release of aldosterone by adrenal

cortex

Aldosterone - leads to increased Na+ reabsorption, water

retention, increase in BP

Angiotensin II – a potent vasoconstrictor causes an increase

in ADH and increased thirst, both help to raise BP
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone system (RAAS)

• Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) - acts to

stabilize BP and volume.
• Renin acts on Angiotensinogen, which is made in liver and
converts it to Angiotensin I.
• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) converts
Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II.
 Mineralocorticoids
• Mineralocorticoids are hormones synthesized by adrenal cortex that
affect osmotic balance.
• Aldosterone - regulates Na+ levels in blood.
• Almost all Na+ in blood - reclaimed by renal tubules under influence
of aldosterone.
• Because Na+ is always reabsorbed by active transport, water follows
Na+ to maintain osmotic balance
• Aldosterone manages not only Na+ levels but also water levels in
body fluids.
 Mineralocorticoids

• Aldosterone - stimulates K+ secretion simultaneously with Na+

reabsorption.

• Absence of aldosterone means that no Na+ gets reabsorbed in renal

tubules and

• all of Na+ gets excreted in urine.

 ADH/Vasopressin Hormone

• ADH/vasopressin - helps body to conserve water when body fluid

volume, especially that of blood, is low.
• Formed by hypothalamus - is stored and released from posterior
pituitary.
• Acts by inserting aquaporins in collecting ducts and promotes
reabsorption of water.
 Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Hormone

• Lowers BP by acting as a vasodilator.

• Released by cells in Atrium of heart in response to high BP
• ANP affects salt release, and because water passively follows salt to
maintain osmotic balance, it also has a diuretic effect.
• ANP also prevents Na+ reabsorption by renal tubules, decreasing water
reabsorption (thus acting as a diuretic) and lowering BP
• Its actions suppress actions of aldosterone, ADH, and renin.
 Glossary
• angiotensin II - molecule that affects different organs to increase blood pressure

• angiotensin I - product in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway

• angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) - enzyme that converts angiotensin I to

angiotensin II
• anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) - hormone that prevents the loss of water

• renin-angiotensin-aldosterone - biochemical pathway that activates angiotensin

II, which increases blood pressure
• Vasodilator - compound that increases the diameter of blood vessels

• Vasopressin - another name for anti-diuretic hormone

 References
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/hormo
nal-regulation-of-the-excretory-system/
• https://opentextbc.ca/biology/chapter/22-5-hormonal-control-of
-osmoregulatory-functions/
The Ureters
• Slender tubes about 25
cm (10 “) long leaving
each renal pelvis

• One for each kidney

carrying urine to the
bladder

164
 Ureters play an active role in
Three basic layers transporting urine (it’s not
• Transitional epithelium of mucosa just by gravity)
stretches when ureters fill
• Muscularis
– Inner longitudinal, outer circular layers
– Inferior 3rd with extra longitudinal
layer)
– Stimulated to contract when urine in
ureter: peristaltic waves to propel
urine to bladder
• Adventitia (external)

165
 Urinary Bladder

• Collapsible muscular sac

• Stores and expels urine

166
• Micturition

– Voiding
– Urinating
– Emptying the bladder

KNOW:
Micturition center of brain: pons
(but heavily influenced by higher
centers)

Parasympathetic: to void

Sympathetic: inhibits micturition

167
 Describe the role of the kidneys in vitamin D activation
 Describe the role of the kidneys in regulating erythropoiesis
 Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the urinary system responds to
maintain homeostasis in the body
 Explain how the urinary system relates to other body systems in maintaining
homeostasis
 Predict factors or situations affecting the urinary system that could disrupt
homeostasis
 Predict the types of problems that would occur in the body if the urinary
system could not maintain homeostasis