Indian Knowledge Systems

Assignment-1

Ancient Sea trading

routes
Submitted by:
Soorsri T S
18NA30032
 Introduction
• India has occupied the most important position of sea trade in the entire South Asian region since the
beginning of maritime trade. The extensive maritime trade network between the Harappan and
Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the 3rd millennium BCE is testimony to the long maritime
trade history of India.

• The over 7500 km-long coastline of India is well known for its seaports located at river mouths or
outlets to the sea. The Periplus Maris Erythraei, Ptolemy, and Indian literary sources mention many
seaports on the western coast of India. Interestingly, archaeological investigations in many of these
port towns have yielded material evidence exhibiting their dominant role in transoceanic trade and
commerce with many countries in the early period.

• The narrative of the ports are based on archaeological explorations and excavations, foreigners'
accounts, Indian literary sources, inscriptions, archival materials, and the field study.
 India has a long maritime trade history. Indeed, sea-borne trade played a significant role in the growth and
expansion of the economy of the Harappan civilization. There was an extensive maritime trade network between the
Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the 3rd millennium BCE. The seals and sealings, weights,
beads, ivory items, pottery and many others of Harappan make or bearing obvious Harappan influence are found
distributed in Mesopotamia, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Fialaka, thehinterland of Iran and Central
Asia.

Harappan’s Maritime Trade Network

 The Harappan civilization was mentioned as Meluha in Sumerian literature. The Harappan had contact with Barbar,
Umm-an-Nar, Ras al Jinz, Tell Asmar, Dilmun, Ur, Susa, Logas (in Mesopotamia), Kish, Lagash, Tall Abraq, Hili,
Wadi Suq, Ras al-Hamra, Ras al-Hadd, Ras al-Jinz, as-Suwayh, Nippur, Tepa Garwa, Jokha, Ashur, Ras-al-Qala
(Bahrain), Rosal Junyaj and other places.
 Seals of Harappan style are found at Ur (Iraq), Lagash, Susa, Tell Asmar, Umma and other places. In fact, a sealing
from Umma is reported to have been found in association with a bale of cloth, which evidently was exported from
India.
 Materials from the Arabian Peninsula and the Gulf region are found in many Harappan settlements in India.
 Mesopotamian texts mention contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and
Meluha, possibly the Harappan region.
 Harappan Seaports
 Mesopotamian texts refer to Meluha as the land of seafarers. In fact, the Harappans constructed many sea-
ports/dockyards for their maritime activities. The first high-tide dock in the world for berthing and
servicing ships was constructed in the port town of Lothal, located at the head of the Gulf of Khambhat,
now situated about 23km away from the shoreline and about 12m above mean sea-level, on the left bank of
the River Bhogawa. There were other smaller ports such as Bhagatrav, Sutkagen Dor in Pakistan, Mehgam,
Shikarpur and Sokhta Koh (also known as Sotka Koh) in Pakistan, and perhaps a large one at Dholavira in
the Harappan period.

Types of ships during Harappan Period

 Harappan peoples not only built docks and warehouses, but also boats. The terracotta models of boats from
Lothal and engravings on Indus seals give some idea of ships during Harappan times. An engraving on a
seal from Mohenjo-daro represents a sailing ship with a high prow and a stern made of reeds. In the centre,
it had a square cabin. A Harappan ship depicted on a terracotta amulet is quite interesting. This boat had a
flat bottom with a raked stern and prow and there are two steering oars at the stern. In the middle of the
boat, there is a cabin. At both ends of the ship, a sea-bird is depicted. They are called dishakak and were
used by sailors to find land. There are two masts on both sides of the central cabin.
Maritime Trade Networks during the Historical Period
 From the dawn of the historical epoch, the maritime trade network of India expanded extensively.
 The emergence of new powers in the Western world such as the Greeks, the Romans and Sassanians in the last
centuries BCE and the first centuries CE also boosted active maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. Increased use of
shipping along the Red Sea tipped the balance of power and prosperity in southern Arabia in favour of those states
with control of the major ports, such as Qana, Muza and Eden, and the east African kingdom of Axum accordingly
thrived.
 Classical records and archaeological sources reveal the voyages undertaken and places seen by maritime explorers
and traders.
 One of the earliest classical records is a story in Book IV: Melpomene, of the Histories of Herodotus (a historian
and traveller of c. 500 BCE from Greece) on the voyages of Scylax of Caryanda, who was sent by the Persian
emperor Darius to find the mouth of the Indus. Records of this journey are also preserved by Hecataeus of Miletus
(c. 550–476 BCE), who mentions an encounter with the land of Maka (Oman) and the Farasan Islands (possibly
Socotra and the KuryaMurya islands).
 This is the first historical record of sailing around the Arabian Peninsula, although the Gulf seems to have remained
the most popular route between India and the Mediterranean for another few centuries.
 The Red Sea continued to be the classical world’s most important entry to the silk route for several centuries,
especially as hostilities between Rome and the Parthian and then Sassanid rulers of Persia made the Gulf route
unsafe.
 In the fourth century CE, however, the situation was reversed, as Mediterranean power transferred from Rome to
Constantinople, shifting the silk route north to the Gulf.
 Exports from India
 Indian products like pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, perfumes, cassia bark, spices, metal,
medicines, hide, ivory, sandalwood, muslin cloth, silk, pearl, aquamarine beryl and other
semiprecious stones were in considerable demand in the Western world.
 According to records, there was great demand for cinnamon in Rome and one Roman pound of
high-quality cinnamon cost 1,500 denarii. Around 1200 BCE, the first pepper appears in the
Egyptian record, positively identified from the dried fruits in the nostrils of the mummy of
Ramses II.
 This is the first indication of possible contact between Egypt and India, though by what route
remains unclear. There are virtually no Roman coins found to the east of India, i.e., Thailand,
Vietnam, Malaysia or China. It seems only shallow draught native vessels could have passed
through Adam’s Bridge and large ships had to make the treacherous circumnavigation of Sri
Lanka.
 This rounding of Cape Comorin was probably undertaken in the later period in the 2nd century CE
and also in a limited way. This may be one of the reasons for the absence of early Roman coins on
the eastern coast of India.
 Coastline of India and Location of the Seaports
 An over 7500 km-long stretch of coastline of India, including the coastlines of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshwadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea, is well known for its seaports located at river
mouths or outlets to the sea.
 The river deltas of India are favourable for navigation and the distributaries associated with estuarine mouths
naturally led to the development of many ports. The large lagoons and lakes provided sheltered water bodies in
which a large number of ports developed. Many of the ports of peninsular India are protected by bars and spits
providing much-desired natural breakwaters for safe anchorages. The coastal length of the Indian mainland (except
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands) is about 5422.6 km and is surrounded by the Arabian
Sea in the west, the Bay of Bengal in the east, and the Indian Ocean in the south.

The eastern coasts

 The eastern coast of India, which cuts through Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal states,
had many natural seaports of international fame even in early times.
 Extending from the Ganges Delta in the north to Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu) in the south, the eastern coast is an emergent
type which is characterised by offshore bars, sea beaches, spits, and lagoons. It is an aggradational plain (a term used in
geology for the increase in land elevation, typically in a river system, due to the deposition of sediment) formed by river
sediments.
 The eastern coastline of the Indian peninsula is well known for its several seaports located at river mouths or outlets to the
sea.
 These include the opulent Ganges Delta and its dense fluvial network, which has openings to the sea through many outlets
along the large fertile plain arching towards the Bay of Bengal, the Odhisha coastal plain, the Krishna and Godavari deltas of
Andhra Pradesh, and the Coromandel Coast of Tamil Nadu with the prosperous Kaveri Delta.
 These river deltas are favourable for navigation and the distributaries associated with estuarine mouths naturally led to the
development of many ports. The Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy mention many ports such as Colchi, Camara, Argaru,
Poduca, Sopatma, and others on the eastern coast of India.
 Archaeological investigations supplemented by literary sources have brought to light a large number of seaports all along the
eastern coast . Some of the ancient port-cities like Alagankulam, Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam, Kayalpattinam, Korkai,
Mamallapuram, Nagappattinam, Periyapattinam, Devipattinam, and others on Tamil Nadu coast like Dharanikota,
Kalingapatnam, Kottapattanam, Machilipatnam (Maisolia), and Motupalli in Andhra Pradesh; Palur, Pithunda,
Khalkattapatna, and Manikapatna in Odisha; and Tamulk (Tamralipti) and Chandraketugarh in West Bengal have yielded
material evidence exhibiting their dominant role in transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries in the early
centuries of common era.
 The flourishing nature of these seaports is vividly recorded in the Periplus Maris Erythraei and many other foreign and local
literary works and in the accounts of foreigners like Ptolemy, Pliny, Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing, Marco Polo, Ibn Battutah, and
many others.
 The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions that beyond Bacare, located just above the tip of the Indian peninsula on the west,
was a dark red mountain (Pyrrhos) and another district stretching along the coast towards the south, called Paralia. The first
place was called Balita.1 It had a fine harbour and a village by the shore. Beyond this there was another place called Comari
(Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu), at which were the Cape of Comari and a harbour.
The figure shows all the
ports among eastern and
western coastline of India.
1. Korkai: The important port next to Comari (Kanyakumari) on the Tamil Nadu coast is Korkai. Korkai is identified
with Colchi referred to in the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Kolkhoi mentioned by Ptolemy. In the Tabula
Peutingeriana, it is mentioned as “Colcis Indorum.” Korkai, in the Srivaikuntam taluk of Tuttukkudi (Tuticorin)
district in Tamil Nadu, is located about 3 km north of the Tamirabarani River and about 6 km from the shore of the
Bay of Bengal. In ancient times, Korkai was a well-known centre of pearl fishing. It is mentioned often in Saṅgam
literature and in classical Western literature. Due to heavy sedimentation and deposition both by the sea and the
river, the bay may have silted up in the medieval period.

2. Kayal: Kayal, also known as Kayalpattinam or Palayakayal in the Tuttukkudi (Tuticorin) district in Tamil Nadu,
seems to have emerged as a new port in the place of Korkai in the medieval period. It was originally situated almost
at the confluence of the Tamiraparani River and the Bay of Bengal, but now it is about 2 to 3 km inland. It seems
that it was a flourishing port town under the Pānͅ dͅ yas in the 12th-14th centuries CE. Marco Polo describes the city of
Cail (Kāyal) as: … a great and noble city, and belongs to Ashar, the eldest of the five brother kings. It is in this city
that all the ships touch that come from the west, as from Hormos and from Kis and from Aden, and all Arabia, laden
with horses and with other things for sale. And this brings a great concourse of people from the country roundabout
and so there is great business done in this city of Cail. It seems the Arabs came here for trade purposes and many of
them settled here permanently. Some of the early mosques here are datable to the 7 th-8th centuries CE. Some of the
Arabic inscriptions found at Kayalpattinam indicate that merchants from Egypt might have often visited this place
or settled there permanently. A large number of Chinese potteries (mainly celadon from the Longquan and Fujian
kilns of the 13th century CE and Dehua porcelain), Southeast Asian potteries, and Islamic potteries were also found
in explorations in and around Kayalpattinam.
3. Periyapattinam:Periyapattinam, a late medieval port town, is located on the shore of the Bay of Bengal, facing the Gulf of
Mannar in Ramanathapuram district, Tamil Nadu. The material evidence, particularly the Chinese potteries found here,
indicate that this port was prosperous mainly during the 13 th-14th centuries CE, although it seems to have continued to
function as a seaport until the 17th century. This place is probably to be identified with Dabadan, a port town mentioned in the
Daoyi Zhilue, a Chinese work of the 14th century.

4. Devipattinam:Devipattinam, another seaport on the southern side of Periyapattinam, is located on the northern side of a
small peninsula projecting towards Sri Lanka. Devipattinam was referred to as Mali-Fitan by Wassaf and Mali-Fatan by
Rashid al-Din, Persian historians of the 14 th century CE. According to these two historians, a Muslim called Taqi al-Din, who
served Sundara Pānͅ dͅ ya as his minister, lived in the country of Ma’bar. While referring to him, both the historians mentioned
that three ports, namely Fitan (Fatan), Mali-Fitan (Mali-Fatan) and Kabil (Bawal) were assigned to his control by Sundara
Pānͅ dͅ ya. Pepper, areca nut, perfumes, and other items were exported from here. Furthermore, many goods from inland were
brought here for export. The goods were transported by small and big boats. The entry fee collected in the port for tōnͅ i, a
kind of ship, was ¼ panͅ am (money), whereas for cir̤ r̤ uru (another type of ship), it was ½ panͅ am. It seems the capacity or size
of cir̤ r̤ uru was bigger than tōnͅ i.

5. Alagankulam:Alagankulam is an ancient seaport situated on the banks of the Vaigai River, about 3 km away from the
seashore and just opposite the northern tip of Sri Lanka. Excavations at this site have brought to light fragments of imported
amphorae, a large quantity of rouletted ware sherds, stamped pottery and Roman coins of Vallentine (383-395 CE),
Theodosius I (383-393 CE), and Arcadius I (395-480 CE), along with a variety of local pottery and antiquities. This port
seems to have been an important port of the Pānͅ dͅ ya rulers near Madurai, their capital, and was also well connected with it
through river and land. The Vaigai River, which flows close to both places, must have been used for navigation in the early
period
6. Nagappattinam:Nagappattinam, a port city situated further north of Alagankulam, was referred to as Nikama by
Ptolemy, Nagavadana by I-Tsing, Pa-tan by Marco Polo, Malifattan by Rashiduddin and Navutapattana in the Kalyani
inscriptions of Dhammaceti (1476 CE). Perhaps Nagappattinam substituted for Kaveripumpattinam as an important maritime
centre in Tamil Nadu in the medieval period. As a result of maritime contacts between South India and Southeast Asian
countries, there existed in Nagappattinam a colony of foreigners and also a Buddhist temple and vihāras for the foreign
merchants/travellers and also perhaps the foreigners mainly from Southeast Asian countries residing there. During the reign
of the Pallava king Narasiṁhavarman II (c. 700-728 CE), it seems, a temple was constructed probably at Nagappattinam with
the consent of the Chinese king for the sake of perhaps the Chinese Buddhists who came to Nagappattinam from China for
trade.

7. Kaveripumpattinam:Kaveripumpattinam in the district of Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu, the celebrated port city of the illustrious
Cōl̤ as of the Saṅgam age and also a notable Buddhist centre, is said to have been situated on the confluence of the Kāvēri
River and the Bay of Bengal. This city was known by several names in the ancient period, e.g.,
Pukar, Pūmpukar, Kakanti, Campapati,and Kaveripumpattinam. Ptolemy refers to this place as “Kaberis Emporion,” whereas
the Periplus Mari Erythraei calls it “Camara. Some of the records state that seafaring traders and Buddhist monks from Sri
Lanka, China, and Southeast Asian countries who came to India via the sea often landed at Kaveripumpattinam and from
there they went to various other places. For some reason or other, trade activities weakened at Kaveripumpattinam after the
6th-7th centuries CE and in turn Buddhism also lost its importance in this city.

8. Arikamedu:Arikamedu, a well-known Indo-Roman trading station, is identified with “Pouduke” of the Periplus Maris
Erythraei and Ptolemy. It was about 6 km from Pondicherry, situated on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River which flowed
into a lagoon barred by a sand-bar from the Bay of Bengal. The renewed excavations proved that the site was first occupied
during the third century BCE and that the height of the region’s trade with the Mediterranean was from 50 BCE to 50 CE. It
is worth mentioning that Strabo recounts that a hundred and fifty ships sailed to India each year via southern Egypt. Some of
the potsherds engraved with old Sinhalese inscriptions found at Arikamedu and also at Alagankulam indicate the network of
these port cities with Sri Lanka.
9. Mamallapuram:Mamallapuram was an important seaport right from the beginning of the Common Era. The first authentic
evidence to prove that it was a seaport comes from the Tamil work Periya Tirumol̤ i written by Tirumaṅgai Āl̤ vār (8th century
CE) who describes the place as Katͅal Mallai (Mallai on the seashore) where ships rode bent to the point of breaking as
they were moving hither and thither laden with wealth, big trunked elephants, and gems of nine varieties in heaps.

10. Kottapatnam:Kottapatnam, located on the east coast near Sriharikota not far from Chennai, is a lesser known seaport in
Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh. The name “Kottis” mentioned by Ptolemy is tentatively identified with this place. A variety
of pottery including rouletted ware, stamped ware, kaolin pottery, Chinese porcelain, celadon ware, glazed ware, a coin of
Taizong (1403–1424 CE) of the Ming dynasty, and many sherds of Thai celadon probably produced from the Si-Sachanarai
kilns in northern Thailand found in this site undoubtedly indicates a well-organized trade link of this place with many
countries like China, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries.

11. Motupalli:Motupalli, another less known seaport of the medieval period, located to the north of Kottapatnam in Andhra
Pradesh, has an interesting inscription speaking of maritime trade activities. The proclamation in the Motupalli pillar
inscription of Ganͅ apatidēva (1244 CE) assures safety to traders arriving from all continents, risking the sea-voyage and its
hazards like storms and shipwrecks. The levies on the items of import and export have also been listed in great detail and
speak to the flourishing international trade from this seaport. Besides the mention of several continents, islands, foreign
countries, and cities, the specific mention of Chini (China) is noteworthy. Motupalli is probably the same as the “mutfili”
mentioned by Marco polo.
12. Machilipatnam:Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh also remained an important seaport on the coast of the Bay of Bengal for
quite a long period. It was located almost at the confluence of the Krishna River and the Bay of Bengal. This place was
mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as “Masalia,” whereas Ptolemy called this place as “Maisolos.”
Machilipatnam’s port served as the principal seaport of the Golconda Kingdom (mainly Telangana region) from the 15 th to
17th centuries CE. Even during the colonial period (18 th-19th century), it remained a significant port. Muslin was an important
trade material of this place, and traders from various parts of the globe visited it for the purchase of muslin. Visakhapatnam
Visakhapatnam, one of the natural harbours on the east coast of India which served as an active maritime trade centre in
ancient times, is a leading seaport of India even now. It has a long history right from the 4 th-3rd centuries BCE. It was
considered a part of the Kaliṅga Kingdom, and later ruled by the Vengi, the Pallava, and the Eastern Gaṅga dynasties.
Archaeological records suggest that the present city was built around the 11 th and 12th centuries, and control over the city
fluctuated between the Cōl̤ a dynasty and the Gajapati Kingdom until its conquest by the Vijayanagara Empire in the
15th century.

13. Kalingapatnam: Kalingapatnam, an ancient port city as well as a notable Buddhist centre, was situated at the confluence of
the River Vamsadhara and the Bay of Bengal, in the Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh. Kalingapatnam was a flourishing
port under the Gaṅga rulers, and during ancient times, vessels from here sailed to Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, and
other countries.

14. Palur: Palur, situated in the Ganjam district of Odisha, was mentioned as an important port on the eastern coast of India.
Palur is referred to in the Nagarjunakonda inscription (3rd century CE) of Virapurushadatta as an important maritime
emporium. G. E. Gerini, a researcher of Ptolemy’s Geography, has identified the “Paloura” of Ptolemy with the present Palur.
15. Pithunda:Pithunda was another significant port of ancient Odisha. The Hathigumpha inscription mentions
Pithumdam/Pithunda as a metropolis which Kharavela conquered in his 11 th regnal year.Sylvain Levi sees the
Pithumdam/Pithunda of the Hathigumpha inscription, the Pityndra of Ptolemy and the Pihumda/Pithunda of the
Uttaradhyayana Sutra to be one and the same. Taking this into consideration, the ancient port of Pithunda may have been
located somewhere near the Chicacole region (Srikakulam region) of modern Andhra Pradesh.

16. Khalkattapatna:Khalkattapatna in the Puri district was a notable seaport on the Odisha coast in the medieval period. It was
situated about 11 km east of Konarak on the left bank of the River Kushabhadra, which joins the Bay of Bengal about 3 km
northeast of it. Excavations at this place have revealed material remains assigned to c. 12 th to 14th centuries CE. On the basis
of the archaeological evidence, Khalkattapatna can be identified as one of the important seaports on the eastern coast of
India, which had maritime trade links with many countries. The mention of an ocean-related tax called
“Samudrakarabandha” in the inscription of the Bhaumakara period (9 th-11th centuries) indicates the busy maritime trade
activities during that period in Odisha and also that there was a system in place to monitor the trade activities .

17. Manikapatna:Manikapatna (Adigrama) in the district of Puri, located on the left bank of the Kushabhadra River at the
northern end of Chilika Lake, was another important seaport of ancient Odisha. It is identified with the port Che-li-ta-lo
mentioned by the Chinese traveller Huien Tsang.

18. Tamralipti:Tamralipti, one of the foremost seaports on the eastern coast of India, had an extensive maritime network with
various port cities throughout the world. Tamralipti is identified with the modern Tamluk in the Midnapore district of West
Bengal. It was located at the confluence of the River Rupnarayana and the Bay of Bengal and as such served as a natural
seaport. The Arthasastra (3rd century BCE) contains profuse references to Tamralipti as an important centre of maritime
trade. Chinese pilgrims like Fa-Hien, Hiuen Tsang, and I-Tsing referred to Tamralipti as a port situated on a broad bay, a
place suitable for embarkation bound for China. It is recorded in the Dudhapani Rock inscription of Udayamana (c.
8th century CE) that merchants from such distant places as Ayodhya (in the Awadh Kingdom) used to frequent this port city
for the purpose of trade.
 The western coasts
 The western coast of India, which cuts through Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala states, has many
natural seaports of international fame even in early times.
 From north to south, the western coast of India is divided into the Kutch peninsula, the Kathiawar peninsula, the
Gujarat plain, the Konkan coast, the Karnataka coast and Malabar or the Kerala coast. The Kutch peninsula has
marshes and lagoons on its side.
 The salt soaked plain occurring all along its northern side is known as the Great Rann, and the salt soaked plain on
its south is known as the Little Rann. The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions many ports such as Barygaza, Suppala
(Sopara), Calliena, Semylla, Mandagora, Palaepatmoe, Melizigara, Togarum, Aurannoboas, Naura (Cannanore),
Tyndis, Muziris, Nelcynda, and other seaports on the western coast, and Colchi, Camara, Argaru, Poduca, Sopatma
and others on the eastern coast of India.
 Archaeological investigations supplemented by literary sources have brought to light a large number of seaports all
along the coast of India. Some important south Indian port-cities like Alagankulam, Arikamedu, Kaveripattinam,
Kayalpattinam, Korkai, Mamallapuram, Nagapattinam, Periyapattinam and others on the Tamil Nadu coast;
Dharanikota, Kalingapatna, Kottapattanam, Machilipatnam (Maisolia) and Motupalli in Andhra Pradesh; and
Kochi, Cannanore (Naura), Pattanam (perhaps the ancient Muziris) and others in Kerala have yielded material
evidence exhibiting their dominant role in transoceanic trade and commerce with many countries in the early
period.
1. Barygaza (Bharuch):Barygaza or Bharukaccha or Bhrgukaccha, the ancient seaport referred to in the Periplus Maris
Erythraei and by Ptolemy (2nd century CE) and others is identified with Bharuch situated at the confluence of the River
Narmada and the Arabian Sea in the Gulf of Khambhat. The Periplus Maris Erythraei states, “Immediately after the gulf of
Barake is the gulf of Barygaza and the coast of the region of Ariake, the beginning of both the kingdom of Nambanus and of
all of India.” Passage 49 of the Periplus describes an extensive range of goods en route through Barygaza. From Barygaza,
spikenard (an herb), costus (an herb), bdellium or bdella (a fragrant gum resin, probably transported from Kashmir), ivory,
agate, carnelian, onyx, myrrh (aromatic gum resin), lyceum, silk and cotton cloth, mallow cloth, indigo, ruzot, boxthorn
(Bocksdorn), long pepper and other items were exported.

2. Ashtacampra or Astakapra (Hathab):Hathab is situated on the rivulets of the Maleshwari River which flows into the Gulf
of Khambhat. The site referred to as Ashtacampra in the Periplus Maris Erythraei and Astakapra by Ptolemy has been
identified with Hathab by some scholars. Hathab has also been identified with Hastakavapra, a name that occurs in a copper
plate grant (5th or 6th century) of Dhruvasena I of Vallabhi. . Period I (4th century BCE-1st century CE) of the excavation
has yielded a copper coin of Apollodotus. In addition, pieces of amphora of Western origin have also been found in the
excavations.

3. Gundigar (Gogha):Gogha an ancient seaport, is situated on the mid-western shore of the Gulf of Khambhat south east of the
Saurashtra peninsula. Sheltered from the southwest monsoon, with its wide stretch of good anchoring ground with soft mud
and clay bottom, Gogha remained an important seaport of the Arabian Sea until the development of nearby Bhavnagar in the
19th century. . Ghogha was known as the port of Gundigar during the Maitraka rulers of Vallabhi (5th– 8th centuries CE).
The port of Gogha was active from the 5th century CE and flourished as a major trading post from the 10th to the 16th
centuries CE before Bhavnagar took the place of Gogha as a trading centre. As it is a tidal port, sailing vessels entered and
left the harbour only at high tides.
4. Kammoni (Kamrej):Kamrej is situated on the left bank of the River Tapi, which falls into the Arabian Sea, and about 15 km
upstream of Surat. It is referred to as Kammoni in the Periplus Maris Erythraei. Excavations here have revealed cultural
deposits dating from the 1st or 2nd century CE to the 9th or 10th century CE. The finding of an Aksumite sherd from the Red
Sea area, where the Aksumite kingdom played an active role in trade from the 3rd to the mid-7th century CE, is quite
interesting. Excavations have revealed that this trading port probably had active overseas contacts with the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf regions.

5. Khambhat (Cambay):Khambhat or Cambay, also known as Stambhatirtha, Stambhapura, Mahinagara, Tarakpura, or

Karnavati, is situated north of the River Dhadar and at the head of the Gulf of Cambay, where the River Mahi discharges into
the sea. It is mentioned by the Arab geographer Khardadha in his work The Book of Roads and States, written in 865 CE.
Khambhat reached its zenith during the period of Sultan Muhammed Begda (1459-1511 CE) and had trade with Persia,
Arabia and Africa in the west and as far as China in the east. Khambhat’s trade began to decline in the 17th century due to
several factors, the main ones being the silting up of the navigational channel in the Gulf of Cambay and political
disturbances. Many 17th century travellers like Finch (1611), Mandelslo (1638), Pietro Della Valle (1640), and Tavernier
(1642-66) reported that vessels could no longer go up to Cambay and they instead moored at Gogha and sent boats laden
with goods to Cambay. In the 15th century, Gujarat became part of the Mughal Empire and Surat became the dominant port
of the Mughals on the west coast of India.

6. Bardaxema (Porbandar):Porbandar, known as Pavr vela kul, Jeshthuka Desh and Sudamapuri in the early days, is situated
on the south west coast of Saurashtra on the Arabian Sea. It is one of the natural seaports in western India nearer to the
African ports. It is probably referred to as Bardaxema by Ptolemy. After Barygaza, the Periplus Maris Erythraei enumerates
many emporia between Barygaza and Dimurikē.
7. Sopara or Suparaka (Nala Sopara):Sopara or Suparaka or Supparak, the ancient seaport referred to in the Periplus Mari
Erythraei and other sources and by Ptolemy, is identified with Nala Sopara near Mumbai. Some scholars have identified
Sopara with the Ophir mentioned in Hebrew texts. It was originally an island cut off from the mainland by a creek known as
Bassein or Nala Sopara. Archaeological and literary sources clearly indicate that Sopara was a main entrepot dating from the
pre-Asokan period (i.e., prior to the 3rd century BCE) up to the 3rd century CE and again from the 9th to the 13th century
CE. However, it seems that during the period from the 4th to the 9th century CE, Sopara lost its importance. It was not only
an important centre of maritime trade activities, but also a notable centre of Buddhism.

8. Calliena (Kalyan):Kalyan, situated on the bank of the Ulhas River near Mumbai, is identified with Calliena referred to in
the Periplus Maris Erythraei. Cosmos Indicopleustus, a Greek monk who made several voyages to India in the 6th century
CE, points out that Kalyan was one of the six biggest markets of India famous for its bronze work, black wood and textiles.

9. Semylla or Sēmulla (Chaul):Chaul (Semylla or Sēmulla) is situated along the Roha Creek about 40 km south of Mumbai on
the Arabian Sea. Chemulaka or Chaul is mentioned in an inscription in the rock-cut caves at Kanheri. Al-Biruni (973-1050)
mentions that Chaul was a chief port of western India, and other cities on the same coast, namely Kambayat (Cambay),
Bahruj (Broach), Sindan (Sanjan), Sufara (Sopara) and Tana (Thana), as having commercial contacts with Chaul.

10. Sindan (Sanjan):Excavations at Sanjan, Gujarat, situated on the north bank of the River Baroli, have revealed its important
role in maritime trade in the Indian Ocean during the early medieval period. It is the place where the Zoroastrians landed in
the 8th century CE after they fled from Iran during the Arab invasion. Excavations have yielded many notable structures
associated with Zoroastrians and ceramics and antiquities of Indian and foreign origin.
11. Naura and Tyndis of Damirica:Naura in Damirica or Limyrike referred to in the Periplus Maris Erythraei further down is
probably identified with Mangalore. The Nitra of Ptolemy and the Nitria of Pliny are also tentatively identified with this
place. Arrian, a Greek historian of the 2nd century CE, refers to Mangalore as Mandegora. Cosmas Indicopleusta refers to
Mangalore as Mangaruth. Pliny refers to the pirates that infested the west coast around Nitria. a. It further states that Tyndis
was in the kingdom of Cerobothra (Keralaputra, i.e., Cēra kings) and it was a village in plain sight by the sea.

12. Muziris or Muciri:The Periplus Maris Erythraei states that Muziris of the same kingdom (i.e., the kingdom of Cerobothra),
abounded in ships sent there with cargoes from Arabia and the Greeks. It is located on a river (Periyar), and twenty stadia
(3.5 km to 4 km) up the river from the shore. Pliny the Elder mentioned that for those who were bound for India, Ocelis (on
the Red Sea) was the best place for embarkation. If the wind, called Hippalus (Southwest Monsoon), happened to be
blowing, it was possible to arrive in forty days at the nearest market in India, Muziris by name.

13. Muziris Papyrus or the Vienna Papyrus:The discovery of the Muziris Papyrus (also known as the Vienna Papyrus as it is
presently kept in Vienna) in 1985 provides interesting information about the international trade links of Muziri. The Muziris
Papyrus, a Roman document probably of the 2nd century CE, is reportedly a part of two separate documents, one pertaining
to a maritime loan and another relating to the security. During the Ptolemaic-Roman period (third century BCE to fifth
century CE), Berenike served as a key transit port between ancient Egypt and Rome on one side and the Red Sea-Indian
Ocean regions on the other. Exotic goods from Rome and Egypt flowed into Berenike along the same desert road before
being loaded onto large ships bound for the Indian Ocean. As mentioned elsewhere, many potsherds with Tamil-Brāhmī
script from the early centuries CE have been found at Myos Hormos (Quseir-al-Qadim) and Berenike, ancient ports on the
Red Sea coast of Egypt, and at Khor Rori-Sumharam, Oman.
14. Pattanam Excavations:Recent excavations at Pattanam, 7 km south of Kodungallur, Eranakulam District, Kerala, have
provided tangible evidence to recognize this place as the ancient Muziris or Mucir̤ i. The excavations have yielded evidence
for Mediterranean and west Asian contacts. The Mediterranean connections are explicit from a large number of amphora
sherds mainly from Kos and Rhodes (Greek islands), Campania and the adjacent area (southern Italy, including Naples),
Cilicia (Eastern Turkey and Syria), Hispania Tarraconensis and Hispania Baetica (Spain), Gallia (France), Aegyptus (Egypt)
and other places; a few terra sigillata ware sherds; intaglios; cameo blanks; Roman board game counters and Roman
glassware pieces.

15. Malabar Coast:The Malabar coast (starting from south of Goa and stretching to Kanyakumari or Cape Comorin) played a
vital role in maritime trade with various countries for centuries in the past. Marco Polo (1254-1324 CE) refers to ships from
China often coming to ports on the Malabar coast like Quilon and Eli and that Levantine merchants, too, came there.46 The
account of Rashid al-Din on Malabar reads, “large ships, called in the language of China, “junks,” bring various sorts of
choice merchandize and clothes from Chin and Machin, and the countries of Hind and Sind. The merchants export from
Ma’bar silken stuff, aromatic roots; large pearls are brought up from the sea.

16. Nelcynda:The Periplus Maris Erythraei mentions that Nelcynda was about five hundred stadia (about 95 km) by river and
sea from Muziris and was of another kingdom, the Pandian. This place was situated on a river, about one hundred and twenty
stadia from the sea. There was another place at the mouth of this river, the village of Bacare, to which ships dropped by on
the outward voyage from Nelcynda and anchored in the roadstead to take on their cargoes because the river was full of shoals
and the channels were not clear. Nelcynda or Nelkunda is mentioned by various authors under various names. Ptolemy
mentioned it as Melkunda, and places it in the country of the Aii (Āy kingdom). In the Tabula Peutingeriana or Peutinger’s
Tabula it is mentioned as Nincylda, and in the Ravenna Cosmography (7th century CE), as Nilcinna. Pliny the Elder in his
book Naturalis Historia calls the port Neacyndi. Nakkada near Niranam in Pathanamthitta District, Kerala, is often identified
with Nelcynda.
 Conclusion
 The Indian seaports, situated at a vital position on the globe, played a major role in promoting maritime trade for
quite a long time, right from the 3rd millennium BCE. They served as a fulcrum of a maritime trade network for
both Eastern and Western countries.
 Tianzhu is the historical East Asian name for India. In ancient Chinese works, India was also referred to as Tiandu,
Yuāndu, Yindu, Yintejia, Wutianzhu, and Xiandou. In Japan, Tianzhu was pronounced Tenjiku, and in Korea,
Tianzhu was pronounced Cheonchuk (India).
 The main products exported from India were pepper, cinnamon, cardamom and other spices; perfumes; metal;
herbal medicines; hide; ivory; sandalwood and other forest products; carnelian; aquamarine beryl and other semi-
precious stones; animals; muslin cloth; silk; pearls; and other products.
 Archaeological explorations and excavations in many sites, mainly in coastal areas, have yielded ample evidence to
prove international interaction during the early period. The findings of a large number of coins, pottery, amphorae
and other materials from Italy and various other European countries, West Asia, China, Korea, Africa, the Arabian
Peninsula, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Far East countries in India are testimony to the dynamic maritime trade
intercourse of India with those countries in the early period. Similarly, pottery, sculptures, inscriptions, and other
materials of Indian origin are also found in those countries.
 Trade routes, both maritime and overland, not only facilitated the exchange of materials, but also provided ample
opportunities for religion, thought, culture, customs, technology, language, philosophy, and knowledge of art and
architecture to reach foreign countries from India and vice versa. The travels of Buddhist monks and pilgrims and
the simultaneous sharing of religious texts and relics indeed stimulated interactions between the Indian kingdoms
and various regions of Sri Lanka, China, and other countries.
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