Year 10

Geography Knowledge Organisers

Paper 1 Paper 2
1. Tectonic Hazards 7. Ecosystems
2. Atmospheric Hazards 8. Tropical Rainforests
3. Extreme Weather in 9. Cold Environments
the UK 10.Urban Issues and
4. Climate Change Challenges: Rio
5. Coasts 11. Urban Issues and
6. Rivers Challenges: Bristol
 1.4 Earthquakes 1.5 Effects of Tectonic Hazards 1.7 Why do people live near volcanoes?
1. Tectonic Hazards Primary effects happen immediately during the hazard. Secondary effects -Geothermal energy –provides electricity and hot water to
Earthquakes are measured using the Richter scale. happen as a result of the primary effects and happen afterwards Reykjavik.
1.1 What are Natural Hazards? Where an earthquake happens is at the focus. The -Farming – fertile soil used for agriculture.
epicentre is the point on the earthquake surface -Mining – find valuable minerals on volcanoes
Natural hazards are physical events such as directly above the focus. Seismic waves are 1.6 Comparing Earthquakes – Nepal (LIC) and Italy (HIC)
earthquakes and volcanoes that have the -Tourism - Over 100 million people visit volcanic sites per year. Go
released from the focus which are the vibrations to see unique views such as the hot springs.
potential to do damage to humans and you feel during an earthquake Gorkha, Nepal, 2015 (7.9 on L’Aquila, Italy, 2009 (6.3 on Richter
property. the Richter scale). scale).
• Constructive margins – usually small, shallow
What affects earthquakes as plates pull apart that are
Types of hazards usually less violent Primary Effects 1.8 Reducing the risk from a tectonic hazard (earthquake)
hazard risk?
• Destructive margins – violent earthquakes as 1. 9000 people died and 20,000 injured 1. 500 people killed, Monitoring and prediction
-Population -Atmospheric – e.g. hurricanes pressure builds and is then released. Found (social) 12000 injured
density -Geomorphological – e.g. where an oceanic plate and a continental plate 2. Electricity and water supplies, (social) -Seismologists use radon detection devices to measure gas that
-HIC/LIC flooding on Earth’s surface push together. sanitation and communications affect 2. Significant Chi escapes from a volcano before it erupts.
-Location -Biological – forest fires, living • Conservative margins – plates slide past each ed. (social/economic) destruction of le -Lasers can be pointed at a volcano to see if it changes shape on the
other. They catch and then as pressure builds it 3. 7000 schools destroyed (social) buildings & build up to an eruption.
-Time of day organisms -Seismometers can detect small earthquakes or rumbles of a
is released e.g. San Andreas fault. 4. 50% shops destroyed infrastructure
-Tectonics – earthquakes, (economic/social) (social/economic) volcano before it erupts
volcanoes, tsunamis 5. Damage cost = US$5 billion Nepal 3. Overall damage =
(economic) US$30 billion Protection Planning
-Strengthening roads and bridges to -Earthquake survival kit with
withstand earthquakes provides bottle water, tinned food, extra
1.2 Structure of the Earth protection (mitigation). clothes, a torch, radio, money and
Secondary Effects -Earthquake resistant buildings are sleeping bag if necessary
The Earth has four layers. The outer layer is There are 2 theories of why plates move: also used but are expensive. These -Planning where evacuation
1. 3 million left homeless Ne 1. Communities cut off by protect the people but may still be centres would be
called the crust and is made of rock. The layer convection currents and ridge push, slab pull. 2. Avalanches on mount Everestpkilled
al landslides damaged. Example of some of the -On 1st September, Japanese
below is called the mantle and is made of liquid Convection theory: Movement of the liquid rock 19 people 2. Coastal towns devastated features of earthquake buildings practise earthquake drills as a
rock. (magma) in the mantle causes the plate tectonics 3. A landslide blocked the Kali by tsunami. include rolling weights on the roof National training day
The crust is split into major fragments called that are above to move. Gandaki river, 140km north west of 3. Chemical plant fireCnear
hi l e that counteract the shockwaves, -American Red Cross provide an
capital Kathmandu causing further Santiago forced evacuations. rubber shock absorbers between earthquake safety check list to
tectonic plates. There are 2 types: Continental Ridge push, slab pull: At constructive margins, flooding foundations, sprinkler systems to help people plan and prepare for
and Oceanic which is denser (heavier). These ocean ridges form beneath them the mantle extinguish fires, automatic window earthquakes.
plates move and where they meet (plate melts this molten magma rises as the plates shutters so glass doesn’t fall
boundaries) you get tectonic activity (volcanoes move apart. It then cools down to form new Short term responses (within 2-4 weeks after an earthquake) downwards.
and earthquakes). plate material.
1. Search and rescue 1. Swift and effective response by
teams. emergency services
2. Tents provided for 2. Key roads repaired within 24 hours
homeless. 3. Most power and water restored within
3. Temporary pop-up 10 days
hospitals 4. US$60 million national appeal built
4. Food and bottles water 30,000 emergency wooden shelters
sent
Nepa Ch i l e
l
Long term responses (months and years after an earthquake)

1. Roads repaired and 1. Strong economy reduced need for

landslides cleared foreign aid.
1.3 Volcanoes 2. 7000+ schools 2. Government reconstruction plan to
rebuilt/repaired help 200,000 households
• Constructive margins – Two plates move apart hot magma rises between the plates and cools down to form solid rock e.g. 3. Stricter building 3. Full recovery within four years
Mid Atlantic Ridge, Iceland. The lava is runny and spreads out and solidifies to form shield volcanoes regulations
• Destructive margins – An oceanic plate subducts (or is pulled down) under a continental plate as it is more dense. At the
surface this forms a deep ocean trench. Friction causes oceanic plate to melt and pressure forces magma up to form Nepa
composite volcanoes (steep sides) eg the Pacific Rim. The lava found at composite volcanoes are sticky. l Ch i l e
 2.2 Tropical Storms 2.6 Typhoon Haiyan, Philippines. 8th November 2013
2. Atmospheric Hazards Primary Effects Secondary Effects
Occur in low latitudes between 5° and 30° degrees north and south of equator.
2.1 Global atmospheric circulation Ocean temperature needs to be above 27°C. They occur between summer and  6190 people died  Oil leak contaminated 10
autumn when air pressure is low.  1.1 million houses damaged hectares of mangroves.
At the equator, the sun’s rays are most concentrated (high isolation). This means it is (half destroyed)  Looting was common as
hotter, compared to the poles where its cooler (low isolation).  90% city of Tacloban destroyed survivors fought for supplies
 Damage to rice cost USA $53 and food
High pressure = air falls and its dry million  By 2014, rice prices had risen
Low pressure = air rises and its wet  ¾ farmers and fisherman lost by 12%
their income  4.1 million people made
0° (equator) – rainforest  1.1 million crops destroyed homeless
 $12 billion dollars of damage
Low pressure
Immediate Responses Long-term Responses
30° (Egypt) – Desert
High pressure  Authorities evacuated  Cash for work programme
800,000 people where locals could earn
 Many sought refuge in an money for clearing debris
60° (UK) – Rain indoor stadium in Tacloban  Rebuilding of roads and
Low pressure 2.3 Conditions for a tropical  Emergency food supplies airports
storms to form arrived 3 days later by  Thousands of homes rebuilt
90 (Poles) – Cold desert plane away from areas at risk of
High pressure.  1 million food packs and flooding
Not on the equator – found 5- 250,000 litres of water
30o latitude N+S
Over the water
Low wind shear.
Temp 27O and water depth
Cloudy and wet in the UK needs to be 60-70m.
The UK is located at about 55° North just below the 60°N line of latitude. This puts the UK 2.7 Reducing the risk from a tropical storm
close to the boundary of cold polar air moving down from the north and warm sub-
2.4 Formation of a tropical storm Monitoring and prediction
tropical air moving up from the south.
The boundary between these two air masses is unstable. Here there is rising air and low- 1. Air is heated above water that’s 27°C  Satellites – monitor cloud patterns associated with tropical storms,
pressure belts (the sub-polar low) on the ground. Rising air cools, condenses and forms precipitation every 3 hours between latitudes 65 degrees N and S of the
2. Air rises under low pressure conditions equator to identify high altitude rain clouds
cloud and rain. This is why it is often cloudy and wet in the UK. 3. Rising air draws in more air and moisture causing torrential rain  Aircraft – used to make observations. Have on-board radar and
Surface winds in these mid-latitudes comes from the south-west. These winds bring warm 4. Air spins due to Coriolis effect around a calm eye of the storm microwaves that help scientist to understand more about tropical
and wet conditions to the UK. But sometimes the cold polar air from the north moves 5. As the air rises it cools and condenses to form large towering cumulonimbus storms
clouds generating torrential rainfall.  Supercomputers designed by NOAA– can give 5 days warning and a
down over the UK bringing snow and very cold winter weather. more accurate location
6. Cold air sinks in the eye so it is clear and dry  National Hurricane Centre in Florida predicts a tropical storms path
8. The tropical storm travels across the ocean in the prevailing wind and intensity for up to 7 days using a track cone
Hot and sweaty at the Equator 9. On meeting land, it loses source of heat and moisture so loses power.
At the equator the air is rising and there is another low pressure belt (the equatorial low).
This is part of the world is very much hotter than the UK, with the sun directly overhead.
Equatorial regions such as central Africa and south-east Asia, experience hot, humid Protection Planning
conditions. It is often cloudy with high rainfall. This is the region where tropical rainforests 2.5 How climate change might affect the distribution, frequency and intensity of
tropical storms? -FEMA advises homeowner to Advice has included
are found. install hurricane straps between preparing disaster supply
roof and walls kits, having fuel in vehicles,
 Intensity is more powerful – number of most severe categories (4/5) have increased -Install storm shutters on
Hot and dry in the desert since the 1970s. As surface temps increase, wind speeds increase knowing where official
windows evacuation shelters are,
Most of the world’s hot deserts are found at about 30° north and south of the Equator.  Distribution – Regions where tropical storms already exist are not expected to be -Install an emergency generator
Here the air is sinking, making a belt of high pressure (the sub-tropical high). Air isn’t rising affected significantly however in the future areas that are outside the natural hazard -Tie down garden furniture storing loose objects and
here, so there are few clouds forming and little rainfall. The lack of cloud makes it very hot zone may be affected -Reinforced garage doors planning with family what
during the day and very cold at night, as heat is quickly lost from the ground.  Frequency – overall frequency is expected to stay the same or decrease but more severe -Remove trees close to buildings to do
tropical storms are expected to increase.
 3.4 Example of an extreme weather event in the UK -Somerset, UK
3. Extreme Weather in the UK 3.3 Evidence that weather is becoming more extreme in the UK floods – Extreme weather

3.1 Types of extreme weather in the UK Causes:

- It was the wettest January since records began in 1910.
Rain – can cause flooding damaging homes and - High tides swept water up the river from the Bristol channel.
business - Rivers had not been dredged or at least 20 years and were clogged.
Snow & Ice – causes injuries and disruption to schools
and business. Destroys farm crops Social Effects
Hail – causes damage to property and crops
Drought – limited water supply . Can damage crops -600 houses were flooded and 16 farms had to completely evacuate their
Wind – damage to property and damage to trees livestock.
potentially leading to injury -Residents placed in temporary accommodation for several months.
Thunderstorms – lightening can cause fires or even -Some villages were cut off as roads were flooded and there was no access.
death -Electric supplies were effected resulting in power cuts and power supplies
Heat waves – causes breathing difficulties and can that kept food cool, shutting down.
disrupt travel. Economic Effects
UK weather is getting more extreme due to climate -Cost of flood damage to be more than £10 million.
change. Temperatures are more extreme and rain is -Agricultural land was under water for 3-4 weeks, destroying crops
more frequent and intense leading to more flooding completely.
events. Since 1980 average temperature has increased -The Bristol to Taunton railways line came away from the ground due to
softening and was closed for a period of time.
1 degree and winter rainfall has increased.
Environmental impacts
-Floodwaters were heavily contaminated with sewage and other pollutants
including oil and chemicals.
-After the flood waters had receded there was a large volume of debris that had
3.2 Extreme weather events in the UK to be cleared.
-Stagnant water that had collected for months had to be deoxygenated before
Storm Events – UK is regularly hit by depressions causing being pumped back into rivers so that wildlife could survive.
heavy rain triggering floods. They can cause great storm
damage especially to the west coast of the UK. Management strategies
Flooding – Flooding is often caused by heavy rainfall or
storm waves brought by a depression. Flooding may trigger Short term responses Long term responses
landslides as a secondary hazard. -Boats were used to access -£20 million was provided and Flood
the villages cut of by flood Action Plan launched a plan to reduce the
Drought – an extended period of low or absent rainfall. In UK risk of future flooding.
this means 15 consecutive days with less than 0.2 mm of rain waters.
-Emergency services -After the flood 8km of the River Tone
on any one day. and Parratt were dredged to increase the
Extreme cold weather – Cold condition take over If provided people with food capacity of the rive channel.
depressions are not passing over the UK as normal. Weather aid, bottled water and -Road levels have been raised so that in
risks include frost. Crops and cattle may not survive warm blankets. the future access isn’t limited by flood
temperature around -10 degrees. Blizzard conditions may -Charities provided beds waters.
affect transport. for the first few days -Vulnerable communities have been
following the flood which provided with defences to reduce the
could be quickly erected in impact it has on them and river banks have
community centres been raised either side of the river.

4. Climate Change
4.1 Evidence for Climate Change
Ice and Sediment Cores
-Ice cores are made up of layers of snow –
one per year. If you drill down you can
analyse gases trapped in layers of ice for
the past and work out previous climate.
Ice cores from Antarctica show changes
over the last 400 000 years.
-Remains of organisms found in cores
from the ocean floor can by traced back 5
million years.
Tree Rings
-A tree grows one new ring each year.
Rings are thicker in warm, wet conditions.
-In the past 70 years tree rings have
become wider and more spaced apart
suggesting temperature is increasing
4.2 Causes of climate change
Natural
Orbital changes (Milankovitch cycles)
– The sun’s energy on the Earth’s
surface changes as the Earth’s orbit is
elliptical its axis is tilted on an angle.
This happens every 100,000 years
Solar Output –Sunspots are dark
patches that appear on the surface of
the sun. This changes solar output
from the sun.
Volcanic activity – Volcanoes emit
sulphur dioxide which mixes with
water vapour. This creates tiny
‘mirrors’ in the atmosphere that
reflects the suns radiation, decreasing
the temperature on Earth. E.g.
Mount Tambora, 1815 in Indonesia
that lowered global temperature by
0.4 – 0.7°C
Pollen analysis
Pollen is preserved in sediment. Different
species need different climatic conditions.
If ffossilized pollen of plants no longer
found in the UK and this shows that the
climate was different as these plants could
not grow in the UK today.
Glacial retreat
Evidence through photographs illustrates
how far glaciers have retreated in the past
200 years due to warmer temperatures
Human
Fossil fuels – release carbon dioxide
with accounts for 50% of greenhouse
gases. Sources include cars and
factories.
Agriculture – accounts for around
20% of greenhouse gases due to
methane production from cows.
Larger populations and growing
demand for meat mean that
agriculture will begin to contribute
more to climate change.
Deforestation – logging and clearing
land for agriculture increases carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and
reduces ability of plants to absorb
carbon through photosynthesis.
4.3 Effects of Climate Change
Social
-Increased disease e.g. skin
cancer and heat stroke
-Winter deaths decrease with
milder winters
-Less ice in Arctic Ocean
increases shipping and
extraction of oil and gas
reserves
-Droughts reduce food and
water supply in sub-Saharan
Africa. Water scarcity in South
and South East UK
-Increased flood risk. 70% of
Asia is at risk of increased
flooding
-Declining fish in some areas
affect diet and jobs
-Increased extreme weather
-Skiing industry in Alps
threatened.
4.4 Managing Climate Change
Mitigation
• Alternative energy production –
renewable sources will last longer but
they can be expensive and are less
reliable than fossil fuels.
• Planting Trees – helps to remove carbon
dioxide. Has the potential to increase
carbon storage by 28%. However land
may be limited and biodiversity is still
threatened unless a wide range of trees
are planted
• Carbon Capture – takes carbon dioxide
from the emission sources and stores it
underground under a cap rock. It can
reduce capture of up to 90% of carbon
dioxide. However, it is very expensive and
unclear if the captured carbon would
escape in the long term. Also it
discourages development of renewable
Environmental energy resources
• International Agreements – targets will
-Increased drought in only be met if they are legally binding
Mediterranean region
(Paris 2015). Financial support is needed
-Lower rainfall causes food for LICs. However, poorer countries argue
shortages for orangutans in
that they need to industrialise and
Borneo and Indonesia getting richer countries to accept their
-Sea level rise leads to responsibility is difficult.
flooding and coastal erosion
-Ice melts threaten habitats
of polar bears
-Warmer rivers affect
marine wildlife
-Forests in n America may
experience more pests,
disease and forest fires
-Coral bleaching and decline
in biodiversity such as the
Great Barrier Reef
(Australia)
Adaption
• The Gambia – suffering from drought.
Adapted by introducing drought resistant
strains of crops, irrigation systems,
planting trees for shade, educating
farmers with water harvesting
techniques, new cropping pattern e.g.
planting crops in lines
• UK – increase in temperature and limited
water supplies. London limited water –
adapted by aerators on taps, shower
timers, water efficient devices,
desalination plants. Adapted by planting
vineyards in South of UK
• Himalayas – limited water supply.
Adapted by using artificial glaciers to
supply water to villages in Ladakh, India.
Water is collected through a system of
diversion canals and embankments and it
freezes. When it melts in spring it
provides water.
• Maldives – rising sea levels. Expected to
be inhabitable by 2030 and completely
submerged by 2070. Adapted by building
sea walls (3 metres), restoring
mangroves, artificial island (3 metres
high), building houses on stilts
 5.3 Epping Forest – example of a small scale UK ecosystem 5.5 Global ecosystems
5. Ecosystems Located east of London, Epping Forest is all that remains of a larger forest that Global
colonised England at the end of the last Ice Age. Characteristics
5.1 Ecosystems ecosystem
Epping Forest is home to: Tropical The tropical rainforest is found along the equator in Asia, Africa and South America.
An ecosystem is a natural system made up of plants, animals and the environment. There  A large number of native tree species including oak, ash and beech rainforest
are often complex interrelationships (links) between the living (biotic) and non-living High temperatures and heavy rainfall associated with equatorial low pressure belt
 A lower shrub layer of holly and hazel at 5m creates ideal conditions for plants to grow. Rainforests cover 6% of the Earth’s land
(abiotic) components of an ecosystem. Abiotic components are non-living components surface. The rainforest us the most bio-diverse environment in the world with over
 Many insects, mammal bird consumer species (9 amphibian and reptile species
such as climate (temperature and rainfall), soil, water temperature and light. 15 million species of plants and animals. A quarter of all medicines come from
Ecosystems can be identified as different scales: and 38 bird species)
rainforest plants. The rainforest has distinctive layers.
A local small-scale ecosystem e.g. pond, hedgerow or woodland  700 species of fungi
A global- scale ecosystem can be a tropical rainforest or deciduous woodland. The global
ecosystems are called biomes. Desert Deserts are found close to the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The Sahara desert
covers the African desert covers the Asian land mass. Hot deserts are associated with
the sub-tropical high pressure belts. Sinking air stops clouds from forming, resulting
in high daytime temperatures, low night- time temperatures and low rainfall. During
the day temperatures can reach 36⁰C but at night temperatures fall to well below
Term Definition freezing due to the lack of cloud cover. Plants and animals have to be well adapted to
survive in these conditions.
Producer Producers convert energy from the environment (mainly sunlight) into
sugars (glucose). The most obvious producers are plants that convert Deciduous Deciduous forests grow 40⁰ to 50⁰ north of the equator. The sun’s rays are less
energy from the Sun by photosynthesis. forests concentrated at this latitude. Cooler winter temperatures mean deciduous trees shed
their leaves in autumn to retain moisture. The UK’s natural vegetation is deciduous
forest.
Consumer Consumers get energy from the sugars produced by the producers. A
pond snail is a good example of a consumer as it eats plants. 5.4 How is Epping Forest interdependent
Coniferous Coniferous forests grown around 60⁰ North of the equator. Coniferous forests are
The forest's producers, consumers and decomposers are all interdependent. This is most forests common in Canada and Scandinavia as they have cold climates. Due to the earth’s
Decomposer Decomposers breaks down dead plants and animal material and return clearly shown by the annual life cycle of the trees. tilt, there is no sunlight for some months of the year therefore there is extremely cold
the nutrients o the soil. Bacteria and fungi are good examples of Most of the trees are deciduous, meaning that they lose their leaves in winter. This is an winter temperatures. Coniferous trees have evolved needle – like leaves that reduce
decomposers. adaptation to the UK's seasonal climate. Winters are darker and cooler than summers moisture and heat loss during the winter months.
(the mean monthly temperature is 18°C in July but just 5°C in January). As a result, the
Food chain A food chain shows the direct links between producers and consumers in trees grow broad green leaves in spring. This allows them to maximise photosynthesis Temperate Temperate grasslands are found between 40⁰ and 60⁰ north of the equator, but only
the form of a simple chain. during the summer. They shed their leaves in the autumn, and so conserve their energy grassland in the centre of continents away from the sea. Found in North America (prairies) and
during winter. Eastern Europe (steppes). These areas experience warm, dry summers and cold
Food web A food web shows all the connection between producers and consumers By mid-autumn, the forest floor is covered with a thick layer of leaves. Remarkably, by winters. Grasses can tolerate these conditions and this land is mainly used for grazing
in a rather complex way. spring, the leaf litter has all but disappeared: the decomposers and detritivores' work is animals.
now complete. Nutrients stored in the leaves are converted to humus in the soil, ready to
support the new season's plant growth. This will ultimately include the fruits and berries
Nutrient Nutrients are foods that are used by plants and animals to grow. There Medi- Roughly 40⁰ - 45 ⁰ north of the equator. They are found around the Mediterranean
that, in turn, support many primary consumers. terranean
cycling are two main sources of nutrients: Sea, near Cape Town in South Africa and Melbourne in Australia. Countries around
Nutrient cycling demonstrates clearly the interdependence of plants, animals and soil. the Mediterranean enjoy hot, sunny and dry summers and mild winters. This is due
 Rainwater washes chemicals out of the atmosphere
People and ecosystem components are interdependent too. In the past, coppicing was to the pressure belts migrating slightly north and south during the year. Drought-
 Weathered rock releases nutrients into the soil
common (cutting back trees to encourage new growth of wood), Today, visitors pick resistant small trees and evergreen shrubs grow between 30⁰ and 40⁰ north and
When plants and animals die, the decomposers help to recycle the south of the equator, but only on the west coast of continents.
berries and flowers, In turn, this helps spread the seeds, which stick to their clothing.
nutrients making them available once again for the growth of plants or
animals. This is the nutrient cycle.
Tropical Tropical grasslands are located between the latitudes of 15⁰ and 30⁰ north and south
grassland of the equator. They range from the edge of the rainforests to the beginning of the
(savannah) deserts, and the climate ranges from tropical wet to tropical dry. There are two
5.2 The distribution of global ecosystems
seasons: a longer dry season and a shorter wet season. This is due to the seasonal
Global ecosystems form broad belts across the world from west to east, parallel to the lines of movement of the Hadley cell. The dry season can be very hot and wild fires can break
latitude. This is because the climate and characteristics of ecosystems are determined by global out. Violent thunderstorms can occur during the wet season.
atmospheric circulation.
Variations in these west to east belts of vegetation are due to factors such as: Tundra The tundra is found from the Arctic Circle to about 60⁰ - 70 ⁰ north (e.g. Canada and
 Ocean currents Northern Europe). There is very little areas of tundra as there is a lack of land at the
 Wind latitude. The sun’s rays hit the earth at a very low angle so temperatures are below
 The distribution of land and sea freezing for most of the year.
These factors produce small variations in temperature and moisture which in turn affect the Only tough grasses and shrubs thrive as they are adapted to retain heat and moisture
ecosystems. For example, the Mediterranean region – with its dry, hot summers and warm, wet in the cold, windy and dry conditions. Animals such as reindeer are adapted to
winters – has its own global ecosystem. survive.
 6.3 Changing rates of deforestation 6.6 Impacts of deforestation
6. Tropical Rainforests Contribution to Loss of biodiversity – Biodiversity is a Soil erosion – As the hillslopes have
The rate in which areas
6.1 Physical characteristics of the rainforest climate change – measure of the variety of plants and been stripped of vegetation, soil is
are deforested are Deforestation can animals in a particular ecosystem. exposed to erosion by rain and wind.
Forest floor changing. In Malaysia have an impact on Rainforests are the most diverse Soil takes thousands of years to form
-Only 3% of the sunlight reaches this layer which means the soil is local and global ecosystem in the world. Deforestation – but it can be stripped away in a
surprisingly unfertile between 2000-2005 and climates. During destroys the ecosystem and the many matter of hours. Removal of soil by
-Buttress roots are tall and wide to support large heavy trees 2005-2010 the rate photosynthesis, habitats that exist on the ground and in wind and rain is called soil erosion.
above trees absorb CO2 the trees. This reduces biodiversity. The roots of trees and plants bind
-Leaching takes place in this layer; this is where rainfall quickly increased by 9%. and emit oxygen. Orang-utans in Malaysia are losing their the soil together. So deforestation
dissolves and carries nutrients away. In Cameroon CO2 is a natural habitat. Between 1990 and 2004 means that soil can easily become
-This layer is defined by plants with large leaves (Swiss Cheese greenhouse gas orang-utans in Borneo lost habitat twice loose and erode away meaning it
Plant for example) to absorb the limited sunshine which is deforestation is still that is partly the size of Wales. Forests have over 600 makes it difficult for crops to grow on
available responsible for species and the highland forests are the land
happening, however it
global warming. home to 25% of all plant species found
has slowed by 14% in Malaysia.
Understorey 6.4 Tropical rainforest case study: Malaysia
-Creeper plants such as lianas do well in this layer as they use a
host tree to make their way towards the canopy where is there is
an abundance of sunlight Malaysia is a country in South East Asia. It is made up of Peninsular Malaysia and East
-Trees and plants in this layer do not tend to grow past 25 metres Malaysia, which is part of the island of Borneo. The natural vegetation is tropical Economic losses Economic gains
-Rising temperatures could devastate some -Development of land for mining, farming and energy will
rainforest. 67% of Malaysia’s land is covered by rainforest. forms of farming such as growing tea, fruit lead to jobs both directly (construction, farming) and
Canopy and flowers indirectly (supply and support industries)
-An overlapping maze of leaves and branches. Many of the leaves have a drip tip to allow heavy rain to drip off 6.5 Causes of deforestation -Plants that could bring huge medical -Companies will pay taxes to the government which can be
the leaf to make its way to the root system benefits and high profits may become used to improve public services, such as education and
-Plants called epiphytes (plants that live on other plants) live on branches high in this layer to seek sunlight. Energy development – Bakun Mineral extraction – Logging – Malaysia extinct water supply
-Home to about 90% of rainforest animals including; monkeys, sloths, birds and millions of species of insects Dam supplies energy for Valuable minerals became the world’s -The number of tourists attracted by -Hydro-electric power will provide cheap and plentiful
industrialized Peninsular can be found in the largest exporter of rainforests could decrease energy
Emergent
-The tallest layer with trees growing 50 plus metres in height
Malaysia. This dam’s reservoir rainforest like tropical wood in
flooded over 700 km² of forests copper, gold and 1980s. Clear felling,
-Fast growing trees such as the Kapok are found in this layer. They out compete other trees by growing the
and farmland. The Bakun Dam coal. To access these where trees are 6.7 Managing rainforests sustainably
quickest to reach the sunlight first
is Asia’s highest dam outside trees are required to chopped down in
China (205m), In 2011, after five be chopped down an area, was International Agreements Ecotourism
6.2 Climate, soil, vegetation and animals in the rainforest The International Tropical Timber agreement came For areas untouched by logging, ecotourism
decades of delays, the then roads built to common. This led
controversial Bakun Dam in transport the to the total into force in 2011. It ensures wood from tropical is an option for sustainable action. Scenery,
Climate: areas is legally sourced and sustainable. The New wildlife, remoteness and culture are the
-Rains every day – total annual rainfall of 2,200 mm Sarawak started to generate minerals out. destruction of York Declaration on Forests, signed by companies main attraction in ecotourism. It aims to
-Temperatures range between 27⁰C and 30⁰C electricity. Several more dams forest habitats. such as Barclays aims to halve forest loss by 2020 educate visitors and increase their
-Very little light variation throughout the year – 12 hours daylight, 12 hour night are planned to boost Malaysia’s and halt it by 2030. However high prices for tropical understanding and appreciation of nature
electricity supplies. hardwood has resulted in mass illegal trading that and local cultures. It is small-scale and
Soil:
takes place in remote areas of the rainforest. locally controlled with all profits going back
-Soils are a poor quality; nutrients are washed down through the soil by heavy rain.
Debt reduction to the local community. Ecotourism
-Shrub layer – dark, only 2% of light, rotting leaves, thin soil HICs get involved and cancel debt in exchange for minimises the consumption of non-
Vegetation protection of the TRF. However debt reduction renewable resources and the ecological
-Most plants have shallow roots that take rainwater and dissolved nutrients directly from the Subsistence farming – Tribal Commercial farming Population schemes are at the discretion of the HICs who the impact. However as tourism diversifies
decomposing leaf litter people living in the rainforest (widespread farming pressure – With a debt is owed to. It is often hard to convince a HIC of more people are choosing holidays where
-Leaves have drip tips to quickly disperse rainfall otherwise the weight may result in branches practise subsistence farming. for business) – growing population the importance of the rainforest over the economy. they experience ecotourism. More tourists
Traditionally, local communities Malaysia is the more space is inevitably increases the impact upon
breaking off ecosystems
-Plants on the forest floor have adapted: they have large leaves due to lack of light, and drip would hunt and gather food largest exporter of needed for the
from the forest and grow some palm oil in the world. housing of people.
tips to help them to shed rainwater quickly
food crops in cleared pockets of During the 1970s,
-The trees in the canopy have small leaves to prevent water loss through transpiration forest. This type of farming is large areas of land
-The large trees have buttress roots which give them stability because of their great height. The small scale and sustainable. were converted to
roots are also a nutrient store Selective logging Conservation
One method of clearing land is palm oil plantations. By only selecting the tallest trees to cut down Givaudan (a Swiss perfume company) helps
Animals ‘slash and burn’. This involves selective logging is a good way to manage the protect 148,000 hectares of rainforest. Local
-Toucans live in the canopy. They have long bills to reach fruit on branches that are too small to the use of fire to clear the land. rainforest sustainably as companies can still benefit people harvest tonka beans, which have a
support their weight. The burning creates valuable from the selling of some valuable woods. In caramel-like smell. They are stored then in a
-The harpy eagle lives in the canopy. It has a 2 m wing span and is so powerful that it can nutrients that help plants to addition, smaller trees are untouched and continue warehouse where they dry and increase in
grow. These fires can grow out to grow, sustaining the biodiversity in the area and value. These can then be sold for a profit by
snatch a sloth from a tree in flight
of control, destroying large also providing a reliable income in the future for locals. However illegal loggers often pay
-Sloths live in the canopy. They use camouflage and amazing slowness to escape predators. areas of forest. locals. However selective logging can sometimes governments to bribe them not to arrest
Green algae grows in the sloth’s fur, which helps to camouflage it in the forest canopy. Sloths leave other trees vulnerable to disease.
are among the slowest moving animals of all. They hang from branches in the canopy and are
so still that predators such as jaguars don’t see them.
 7.5 Case study: Svalbard 7.8 Managing cold environments
7. Cold Environments Describe the location of Svalbard Svalbard is in Norwegian territory in the Arctic Ocean. Action by governments
7.1 Cold Environments Opportunities for development in Svalbard -Controls tourism and keeps disturbance to a minimum
Mineral extraction Tourism -Ensure that the rights of native people are recognised before oil
Polar and tundra are cold environments; they cover ¼ of the Earth’s land Svalbard has rich reserves of coal. Environmental Tourism here is on the rise as people explore extreme
surface, the world’s cold environments are high- latitude world regions where extraction begins
groups are against burning coal due to its environments. In 2011 70,000 people visited. The harbour has
cold, sinking air creates freezing winds and the sunlight is thin. damaging environmental impact. been enlarged to cope with the increased number of cruise -A national organisation oversees fishing to make sure methods of
Coal is vital though to Svalbard’s economy ships. Tourism provides 300 jobs for locals. People come to see sustainable
7.2 Physical characteristics of a cold environment The mine employs 300+ people. the natural environment, to hike and kayak, then in the winter
Tundra Polar . to see the Northern Lights.
-The thermal growing season lasts just 6- -Found inland areas away from
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
10 weeks in Barrow, Alaska the warming influence of the
Fishing Energy developments -Groups help protect important species such as polar bears and the
-This is a short cool summer but the sun sea e.g. Greenland. Northern
shines 24 hours a day (Alaska) Canada, Northern Russia The waters around Svalbard are one of the Svalbard has coal reserves which are burned to generate Greenland Shark
-In December there is complete darkness (Siberia) and Antarctica richest fishing grounds in the world. There’s an electricity, this is very polluting though. Geothermal energy is a -WWF works with local communities to manage critical ecosystems
and in some years temperatures have -Day time temperatures at rarely estimated 150 species of fish here. Fish stocks good option due to the geographical location of Svalbard, next -Works with oil companies and local Inuit organisations (locals) to plan
dropped below -40 degrees Celsius reach 10 degrees Celsius. need to be protected from pollution. to a constructive plate boundary.
(Alaska). -Precipitation in a polar climate for a sustainable future of the Arctic
-Most ground is permanently frozen falls mostly as snow, but overall
(permafrost) there is little precipitation Challenges for development in Svalbard
-Tundra is a treeless ecosystem and is because cold air cannot hold Technology – Trans-Alaskan pipeline
Extreme Temperature Provision of buildings
composed of shrubs and low lying much water vapour. -It’s dangerous to work in cold conditions as you In 1969 oil was discovered at Prudhoe Bay on the north coast of Alaska.
mosses -Thermokarst makes the ground surface uneven to build on
may develop frostbite (-30°C) -Buildings can warm, melting the snow and ice next to the Winter sea ice in the Arctic Ocean prevented oil being transported by
-To overcome cold conditions people wear walls. This can cause the building to sink into the ground tanker so an alternative way had to be found.
several thermal layers to retain their body heat
It was decided a pipeline would be used however, the area in which it
7.3 Adaptations to the cold environment (polar and tundra) Inaccessibility Infrastructure needed to travel faced a series of problems which needed to be
-Cold environments are often remote (like -Phone/internet lines are not worth investing in due to overcome:
Vegetation Svalbard) and can only be accessed by plane unpredictable conditions and limited customers -Pipeline raise above ground to prevent migration patterns being
-Only plants with shallow root systems can survive permafrost these include -Snow and ice make roads unusable so -Water, sewerage and gas cannot be buried underground as disturbed
mosses, lichens, bearberry and some flowering plants or low growing shrubs. snowmobiles are used they would freeze
-Trees cannot survive as they rely on deep roots for stability in the wind -Pipeline structured so that is would swing during an earthquake, not
-Due to high latitude light is weak; snow covers plants for many months and fracture and cause an oil leak
they have adapted to maximise photosynthesis during the short growing 7.6 Value of cold environments as wilderness areas- why should we protect them? -Insulated pipeline to prevent permafrost melting
season.
-Plants grow close to ground and each other to allow plants to trap pockets of Wilderness areas perform vital ecosystem services that the whole world relies on. The white
warmer air. Their leaves are small and fringed with tiny hairs to capture heat. snow and ice cover in polar regions reflects sunlight and helps to regulate Earth’s
Animals temperatures. The permafrost keeps enormous volumes of methane (greenhouse gas)
-Polar bears have thick blubber to retain heat and white fur for camouflage
-Consumers e.g. Snowshoe rabbits have white fur, this helps them adapt as
locked in so if released this would contribute largely to global warming.
they cannot easily be seen against the winter snow. Also consumers such as 7.7 Interdependence of people plants and animals
caribou and musk ok have 2 layers of fur to help them survive the bitter cold.
They also have large hooves to help them travel over soggy ground and break
through ice to find drinking water during winter.
-Tundra birds and small mammals use moss to
line their nests for warmth against the icy
7.4 Issues relating to biodiversity in cold environments wind.
Climate change Oil exploration . -Traditionally, Inupiat and Yup’ik people of the
-Sea levels rise meaning less ice for -Drilling for oil may kill species that Arctic Circle depended on animal skin and
animals to hunt on so animals die we’re yet to discover, some of
-Sea temperatures rise and which could be valuable to feathers for their clothing.
animals cannot adapt quick humans -Historically, indigenous people in coastal
enough to temperatures so -If there was an oil spill an entire areas have depended on marine species (e.g.
become extinct species could be wiped out forever
-As ice melts, access for boats -As ice melts, access for boats fish, sharks and whales) for food and other
becomes easier to areas where oil becomes easier to areas where oil uses
can be found. can be found.
 8.4 Coastal Erosion 8.7 Landforms of deposition
8. Coasts Erosion is the wearing away of rock as a result of movement Spits - A spit is a long, narrow finger of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the land
8.1 Waves Hydraulic action Abrasion Attrition
-Longshore drift occurs along a beach
Three factors contribute to the size of waves: The force of water Pebbles and rocks -Where a coastline changes shape waves lose energy and there is deposition at the end of the beach
1.The strength of the wind The sandpapering -Material is deposited forming a spit
and air into cracks in colliding and grinding -Longshore drift continues and the spit curves because of a secondary wind
2.How long the wind blows for action of pebbles
rocks, causing rocks against one another -A saltmarsh forms behind the spit where water becomes stagnant
3.The distance in which the wind blows (fetch) being thrown against
to break off under to become smoother
Constructive waves: low energy, large swash, small backwash, 6-8 waves per minute a cliff face
pressure and rounder
Destructive waves: high energy, small swash, large backwash, 10-14 waves per minute
Sand dunes: At the back of the beach, sand deposited on the Bars: bars are created when a spit
8.5 Landforms of erosion beach has been blown inland by onshore winds to form dunes extends to another piece of land
8.2 Weathering
Headlands and bay Wave-cut platforms CASS For a sand dune to form, it needs:
Weathering is the breaking up of rocks with no major movement -A large flat beach
-A large supply of sand
Chemical – caused by a chemical reaction Mechanical – results in rocks being -A large tidal range, so there is time for the sand to dry
when rainwater hits rock and broken up rather than decomposed -A line of weakness -An onshore wind to move sand to the back of the beach
decomposes it -Hydraulic action and (crack) is widened by -An obstacle such as driftwood for the dune to form against
-At discordant abrasion attack the hydraulic action in a
Carbonation/acid rain: Rainwater absorbs Freeze thaw: Water from rain or waves coastlines different foot of a cliff causing headland forming a
CO2 from the air and becomes slightly becomes trapped in a crack or joint in the rock types run at a wave-cut notch cave 8.8 Coastal Management Strategies
acidic, making an acid called carbonic acid. rock. If the air temperature drops below right angles to the -The base leaves the -Cave is deepened by
freezing, the water will freeze and expand coastline column of rock above abrasion before
Hard Engineering – expensive man made structures used for coastal protection
When it falls this carbonic acid reacts with by 9-10% putting pressure on the rock. The
the calcium carbonate found in limestone. -Softer rock is less unsupported breaking through to Strategy Benefits Costs
ice will melt when the temperature rises resistant and erodes -Overtime the notch the other side of the
This creates calcium bicarbonate and over above freezing. If this process happens further inland is weakened and due headland forming an Sea wall – concrete wall that -Very effective at stopping -£5000 - £10000 / metre
time washes and wears the surface of the repeatedly, the rock will weaken and -Harder less resistant to gravity the rock arch reflects wave energy the sea -Very expensive and high
rocks away. eventually shatter. rock (headlands) above collapses -Arch is weakened at -Walkway or promenade for maintenance costs
erode slower and -As the cliff retreats a the base by abrasion people to walk along
stick out wave-cut platform is -Arch collapses due
left to gravity Rock Armour – large granite -Can provide interest to the -£2000 000 / 100 metres
8.3 Mass Movement -Stack remains boulders at foot of cliff to coast -Do not fit in with local geology
absorb wave energy -Climbing danger for children
Mass movement is the movement of material downslope under the influence of gravity. It is the
falling, sliding or flowing of rock, sediment or soil most often along a slip plane (line of weakness). 8.6 Coastal Transportation Groynes – wooden or stone -Create wider beaches which -Starve beaches further down the
fences built perpendicular to can be popular with tourists coast making them narrower and
Rockfall Landslide Slumping Longshore drift is the process by which material is transported along a beach the beach to stop LSD. -Not too expensive so more likely to erode (terminal
groyne effect)

Soft Engineering – natural less expensive methods used for coastal protection

-Large boulders of rock
fall downwards to form
scree at the bottom of
the cliff.
-Often caused by freeze
thaw
-When blocks of rock
slide rapidly downhill
-Occurs in rock that
absorbs water it
becomes saturated and
the weight causes it to
collapse down
-Rainwater saturated
soft rock
-Heavy saturated rock
causes a curved slip
plane
-Gravity pulls the slab of
soft rock downwards
-Waves under-cut
further from the base
Beach nourishment / -Looks natural -£500 000 /100 metres but can vary
reprofiling. Adding sand -Creates amenity for tourism -Needs constant maintenance
to a beach or changing -Cheap and easy to maintain -Less effective than hard engineering
its shape
Dune Regeneration – -Considered natural -£200-2000 per 100 metres. Time
artificially adding to the -May increase biodiversity consuming to plant and maintain
size of a sand dune -Easily damaged by storms
Managed Retreat (example: Medmerry) –allowing the sea to flood over low - lying land
-Prevailing wind pushes the swash up the beach at a 45° angle
-Backwash is pulled back into the sea due to gravity at a 90° angle Allow sea to -Long term solution with low maintenance -Low value land is lost to sea
move into -A natural buffer -Local people have to move so
-Process repeats moving material along a beach in a zig-zag area. -New ecosystem created need to be compensated
pattern -Biodiversity improves, e.g bird watching -Some ecosystems may be lost
 9.4 Upper course erosional landform: waterfalls and gorges
9. Rivers
1.Hard rock overlays soft rock. A waterfall will form where there is a junction
9.1 River profiles between hard rock capping upstream and soft rock downstream.
2.Hydraulic action widens a crack in soft rock to create a plunge pool
3.The plunge pool is deepened into the soft rock by abrasion which undercuts
the hard rock and creating an overhang of hard rock
4.The hard rock above becomes unsupported so collapses and retreats
upstream
5.The process continues and the waterfall retreats upstream leaving a gorge
9.6 Lower course depositional landforms
Levees: When a river bursts its banks heavy sediment is deposited closest to the
river creating elongated ridged that extend along a river increasing its capacity.
Floodplains – wide areas of flat land – often good form farming
There are two processes responsible for the formation of a floodplain
Estuaries – Where the river meets the salt water of the sea. Salt marshes are
common.
9.7 Boscastle flood 2004: causes
Physical Human

Precipitation – heavy prolonged rainfall days before
saturated the ground
Geology – impermeable rock such as shales and
clay = higher risk of flooding as more surface run off
Relief – steeper slopes = higher risk of flooding as
more surface run off
Building urban areas: impermeable
surface
Deforestation :water not stored on
trees so increase of water on ground
= more surface run off = higher risk
of flooding

9.8 Boscastle flood 2004: impacts

Social Economic Environmental

-Cars washed out to sea -Homes and -Oil leaks into sea
-Tourists and locals businesses closed for from cars
couldn’t return to summer -Natural ecosystems
9.5 Middle course erosional landform: meanders and ox-bow lakes accommodation -Less tourism in river lost in flood

1.Fast flowing water on the outside bank causes lateral erosion through abrasion 9.9 River Management Strategies
9.2 Fluvial processes and hydraulic action, which undercuts the bank and forms a river cliff. (The point of
maximum erosion is slightly downstream of the mid – point of the loop) Hard Engineering

Erosional processes (see coasts 7.4 for hydraulic action, abrasion and attrition) 2.Helicoidal flow is a corkscrew movement. The top part of the flow hits the outside
Strategy Benefits Costs
Solution: refers to the dissolving of rocks such as chalk and limestone bank and erodes it. The flow the ‘corkscrews’ down to the next inside bend, where it
Vertical erosion: deepening of the river bed by hydraulic action. Evident in the deposits its load as friction slows the flow Dams & Provides HEP, attracts tourists, very Very expensive, dangerous if it
3. Fast flow causes erosion on the outside bend. This deepens the river bed, Reservoirs reliable bursts
upper course of a river resulting in an asymmetrical cross profile
Lateral erosion: sideways erosion, wearing away the banks of the river. Evident 4.Sand and pebbles are deposited on the inside bank where the current is slower, Channel Increases speed of water to clear, Visually unattractive, expensive to
in the lower course of a river where it begins to meander forming a gentle slip off slope Straightening reduces flooding put in place
Transportation processes 5.As the meander loop becomes large the neck of land between two meanders
Traction: large boulders rolled along the river bed becomes increasingly narrow
Flood Relief
Channels
Removes risk of flooding from
designated areas
Can cause increased flooding
downstream
Saltation: smaller rocks bounced along the river bed 6.River floods, so main flow of water is cut straight across the neck
Suspension: fine light material suspended in the water 7.Continued lateral breaks the neck forming a new straighter channel Soft Engineering
Solution: dissolved material carried along in the river 8.The old river channel is increasingly detached as it is no longer receiving river
water Flood warning and Cheap way of protecting Only effective if people listen and
9. Marsh plants colonise the area. preparation people take action.

Flood plain zoning It is low cost – only Difficult to get planning permission
9.3 Upper course erosional landform: interlocking spurs administration costs are to extend or rebuild homes in the
involved floodplain
-In the upland areas, the geology is composed of hard rock such as granite or slate. Freeze
thaw weathering gradually broadens it out. This gives the valley a steep V-shaped cross 9.10 Storm Hydrographs
profile. Repeated weathering weaken the rock so fragments break loose and tumble
down the hillside as scree, which the river then removes Peak rainfall – the time when rain is the heaviest
-The winding path taken by the river is due to obstacles of harder rock in its path. The Rising limb – shows how quickly the discharge rises
river takes the easiest route over the land. This results in projections of high land entering Peak discharge – the highest recorded discharge
the valley from alternate sides. These projections are interlocking spurs Lag time – the time difference between peak rainfall
and peak discharge
Base flow- the normal flow of a river

10. Urban Issues and Challenges: Rio
10.1 What is Urbanisation?
Urbanisation is the proportion of people living in towns and cities. In
2007, the UN announced that for the first time, more than 50 % of the
world’s population live in urban areas.
Where is Urbanisation
happening?
Urbanisation is happening all
over the word but in LICs and
NEEs rates are much faster
than HICs. This is mostly
because of the rapid
economic growth they are
experiencing.
10.2 Causes of Urbanisation and counter-urbanisation
Rural - urban migration
Push
• Natural disasters
• War and Conflict
• Drought
• Lack of employment
Natural Increase
Increase in birth rate (BR)
• High infant mortality rate,
therefore large families increase
the chances of survival
• Lack of contraception or
education about family planning
The movement of people from urban areas into
Counter urbanisation
surrounding rural countryside
Push (away from urban)
• Over populated
• Crime
• Litter
• Expensive homes
The movement of people from rural to urban areas
Pull
• More Jobs
• Better education & healthcare
• Following family members.
When the birth rate exceeds the death rate
Lower death rate (DR)
• Higher life expectancy due to
better living conditions and diet.
• Improved medical facilities helps
lower infant mortality rate.
Pull (towards countryside)
• Improved transported allows easier
access
• Space for larger family homes
• Access to education and healthcare
still
10.3 Types of Cities 10.6 Social challenges and solutions
Megacity An urban area with over 10 million people living there. People move to Rio for improved healthcare, education, water supply and energy. However due to the
increasing population these cause challenges which Brazil’s government are trying to solve
More than two thirds of current megacities are located in either NEEs
(Brazil) and LICs (Nigeria). Healthcare: in 2013 only 55% Solution: Health kits provided into people’s homes and education
of people had access to a local given so people could identify and treat 20 different diseases. As a
family health clinic result IMR has fallen and LE increased
10.4 Rio: an example of an NEE experiencing urban change
Education: only half of children continue their education beyond Solution: Encouraging locals to
14. Many drop out and get involved in drug trafficking volunteer to support in schools
Rio is a coastal city of situated in the south east region of Brazil within the continent of South
America. It is the second most populated city in the country (6.5 million)
Water supply: 12% of Rio’s population Solution: 7 new water treatment plants and over 300km of
don’t have access to running water. pipes were laid. In 2014 95% of the population had a mains
Rio’s importance water supply
-Has the second largest GDP in Brazil and is headquarters to many of Brazil’s main companies
-Sugar Loaf mountain is one of the seven wonders of the world (international)
Energy: the whole city suffers frequent Solution: 60km of new power lines installed and
blackouts due to a shortage of electricity development of hydroelectricity to increase supply by
-Stunning beaches like Copacabana beach attracts tourists (international) 30%
-Hosted the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Summer Olympics (regional/national/international)
-Coastal position makes it a brilliant city for trade globally with several shipping ports
10.7 Environmental challenges and solutions
Migration to Rio Traffic congestion and air pollution: Rio is the most congested Solution: expansion of Rio’s
city in Brazil. Congestion makes people late for work and metro system and toll roads
pollution increases the number of people with asthma and into the city centre to reduce
-Millions of people have migrated from rural areas that have suffered from drought, lack of bronchitis congestion
services and unemployment.
-Rio has also grown rapidly over the last 50 years to become a major industrial, administrative,
commercial and tourist centre. These economic activities have attracted many migrants from Water pollution: 55 rivers are heavily polluted with 200 tonnes of Solution: 12 new sewage
Brazil. sewage pouring into Guanabara Bay each day. Water pollution works built and ships fined for
-This expanding population has resulted in the rapid urbanisation of Rio de Janeiro. affects Rio’s beautiful beaches which influences tourism and the dumping waste
economy
10.5 Economic opportunities and challenges in Rio Waste pollution: favela’s are difficult to access for waste Solution: power plants set up
collection on hillsides causing diseases like cholera that burns rotting rubbish
As Brazil’s second most important industrial centre the city imports and exports good sfrom all
around the world. The steel work industry has developed extensively and within construction 10.8 Challenges of squatter settlements (favelas)
jobs have been created for skilled and non-skilled workers.
Formal vs. Informal economy Construction - Poorly constructed houses as they are built illegally with basic materials e.g. iron.
Many are built on steep slopes and heavy rainfall (precipitation) can cause landslides.
Unemployment – Unemployment rates are as high as 20%. Much employment is poorly paid with
Due to Rio’s rapidly expanding population there are few job opportunities for everyone thus irregular jobs in informal sector. Average income = less than £65 a month.
seeing a rise in the informal economy. Crime – High murder rate of 20 per 1000 people in many favelas. Drug gangs dominate them and
many inhabitants distrust the police.
Formal economy: tax paid to the Informal economy: money earnt is Health – Infant mortality rates are as high as 50 per 1000. Waste cannot be disposed of this increases
government not taxed risk of disease.
Services- Many homes use illegal connections to electricity pylons. Sewers are often open drains. Taps
are often located at bottom of steep slopes and require several trips each day.
-Tax paid to fund education, -No skills needed so anybody can
Advantages healthcare and infrastructure do it, keep all money earnt
10.9 Urban-planning scheme: Favela-Barrio Project
-Normally skilled jobs only where -Don’t contribute to tax hindering Successes Failures
Disadvantages university degrees are needed ed. health etc., against the law -Property values have increased by 80-120% -When rent and house prices rise, poorer
-Access to health services and jobs through people are ‘priced out’ of their homes
improved infrastructure (construction of cable -Newly-built infrastructure isn’t being
Reducing unemployment in Rio car to the main city) maintained by the government
-Increased attendance to schools among those -Teachers do not have the skills to improve
aged 5-20 years old literacy skills and teach new skills
The government is trying to use education to increase the number of skilled workers in poorer -Pacification has reduced the level of crime in -Pacification has made people fear the police
parts of the city. This however is difficult as the informal economy increases in size fewer taxes favelas, removing drug lords and innocent people have been shot
are been paid to fund the growing issue of unemployment and the informal economy
 11.4 Urban change opportunity: Regeneration (The Temple Quarter) 11.8 Urban change challenge: Inequality
11. Urban Issues and Challenges: Bristol
The Temple Quarter was an industrial areas in the 18th century. The industry Stoke Inequality is the gap between areas with levels
Filwood
11.1 UK population distribution declines and it became run-down (derelict). It was the first area people saw when Bishop
of social deprivation and affluent areas.
they arrived in Bristol from Bath or on the train at Temple Meads station.
Life expectancy 78 83
The UK is sparsely populated in the
north west due to the relief of the land. The regeneration scheme Unemployment
The relief here is mountainous making it -Engine Shed: a renovated historic building will house businesses (16-24yrs) 33% 3%
difficult and expensive to build on. The -Temple Meads Station: station redeveloped and railway electrified
south east of the UK is densely -Glass Wharf: a new office development 5+ good GCSEs 36% 94%
populated because of flat land to make it -Bristol Arena: used for concerts, exhibitions and sporting events.
Children in
easy to build on and easy to farm on. In poverty 50% 4%
addition the presence of the River 11.5 Urban change opportunity: Quaternary Services
Thames made the area accessible for 11.9 Urban change challenge: Urban sprawl (Green vs. Brownfield sites)
trade historically. Bristol’s port closed. Jobs changed from manufacturing and transport industries to
high-tech (quaternary) and tertiary (services e.g. education) As Bristol’s population increases there’s a greater demand for housing. New homes
can be built on greenfield sites (greenbelt: an area of land around cities that building
is restricted) or brownfield sites (derelict areas of land in a city previously developed
Why were high-tech industries attracted? Industries on
11.2 UK changing population -Government grant of £100 million for high- -Defence Procurement Agency
speed broadband (DPA) supplies the army, airforce Greenfield: Harry Stokes Brownfield: Bristol Harbourside
The UK’s population changed in the 1800s - University educated workforce and navy -Larger homes with gardens for -Closer to work and entertainment,
during the industrial revolution. As farming -Clean and non-polluted environment -Aardman Animations: created families, driveways, safer, nicer views no habitats destroyed, close to
techniques and medicine improved people Wallace and Gromit
were living longer. In addition due to the
development of factories the urban -Destroys wildlife, fewer trees, -Expensive, crime, smaller homes
11.6 Urban change opportunity: Environmental Impacts (European Green Capital) increasing CO2 (climate change)
population of the UK increased rapidly due
to the job opportunities that were there.
2015 Bristol became the first UK city to be awarded European Green Capital Status
It plans to: 11.10 Urban change challenge: Pollution (Bristol’s pollution problem)
-Increase the use of renewable energy from 2%
11.3 Bristol: an example of a city in the UK experiencing urban change -Build on brownfield sites
-Reduce energy use by 30% and reduce C02 emissions by 30% by 2020 Problems Solutions
Bristol is the largest city in the south-west of England. It has a population of 535,907 -Greenhouse gases lead to climate -The Frame Gateway: a walking
people. It grew in the 18th century from trading with West Africa and the West Indies. change and cycling route to the city
11.7 Urban change opportunity: Environmental Impacts -Congestion > late to work > less centre
Bristol’s importance income -electric vehicle programme
Urban greening: a third of Bristol is open space, there are 8 nature reserves and 300 parks, -Health issues from pollutant gases -smartphone public transport
-Good rail and road links to London and Europe Queen Square used to be a dual carriageway but it is now an open space with cycle routes. app
-It is part of the M4 corridor a group of important cities linked by the M4 motorway
-2 major docks
-Airport links the city to Europe and the USA Integrated transport system (ITS):
-Large manufacturing companies (Airbus, BMW and Siemens) and high-tech businesses -Park and Ride- 3 carparks on the outskirts of town. People park and take the bus in. Reduces
-Bristol university attracts students from around the world congestion. 11.11 Sustainable Urban Living (Freiburg)
-The Rapid Transit Network- 3 bus routes link the railways station to the park and ride sites
-Electrification of the railway line to London Sustainable urban living means being able to live in cities in ways that do not pollute the
environment and using resources in ways that ensure future generations also can use then.
This happened at London’s East Village (athlete’s homes during the Olympic Games, 2012)
Bristol’s changing population 11.8 Urban change opportunity: Social

-Half of Bristol’s population growth is from migration from abroad Entertainment:

-Most migrants are from EU countries especially Poland and Spain
Advantages of ethnic diversity
-Enriches the city’s cultural life i.e.
Nottinghill Carnival
-Hard-working and motivated workforce
-Extra contribution to UK tax
-Less racism due to cultural mix
Disadvantages of ethnic diversity
-Challenges of integration into wider
community
-Need to provide education to children
whose first language isn’t English
-Pressure on housing and employment
-Colston Hall: concerts and entertainment
-Bristol Old Vic: theatre Water conservation: collect rainwater, greenrooves, unpaved tramways, pavement
that let the water soak through
Energy conservation: 400 solar panel installations, biomass generator using woods
Shopping and rapeseed oil heats 3 swimming pools
-Cabbot Circus: opened 2008, cost £500 million, 2/3 shops and leisure facilities. 1/3 offices,
Creating green spaces: 40% of the city is forested, 44,000 trees planted, 600
cinema, hotel and 250 apartments.
-Bristol Harbourside: warehouses converted into bars and nightclubs, At-Bristol science hectares of parks > keeps air clean, habitats for animals, recreation
museum