DNA & RNA

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 A NUCLEOSIDE is a nitrogenous base (purine or
pyrimidine) bound to a pentose sugar ribose or deoxyribose. A
nitrogenous base is a nitrogen-containing compound that may
form a nucleoside when they are attached to a five-carbon sugar
ribose or deoxyribose.

nucleoside = nitrogenous base + ribose or

deoxyribose
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 SUGAR

CHEMIC C5H10O4 C5H10O5

AL
FORMUL
A:
STRUCTU It has a hydrogen (H) atom at It has a hydroxyl (OH) group at
RE: position 2 position 2
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DISCOVE 1929 by Phoebus Levene 1891 by Emil Fischer and Oskar Piloty
ADENINE + DEOXYRIBOSE CYTOSINE + DEOXYRIBOSE THYMINE + DEOXYRIBOSE GUANINE + DEOXYRIBOSE

Of DNA

NUCLEOSIDES

OF RNA

ADENINE + RIBOSE CYTOSINE + RIBOSE ZOEFILES GUANINE + RIBOSE URACIL+ RIBOSE

 NUCLEOTIDE
A nucleotide is an organic molecule with a basic composition of a
nitrogenous base, pentose sugar(ribose, deoxyribose) and
phosphate.
A nucleotide consists of three units, which are covalently linked.
They are:
1.Nitrogenous bases – Purine and Pyrimidine
2.Pentose Sugar – Ribose and Deoxyribose
3.Phosphate – monophosphate, diphosphate, triphosphate

nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

DNA and RNA are polynucleotides, which contain a chain of nucleotides monomers with different nitrogenous
bases. Nucleotides are essential for carrying out metabolic and physiological activities.

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 WHAT IS
“DNA IS A GROUP OF MOLECULES
DNA?
THAT IS RESPONSIBLE FOR
CARRYING AND TRANSMITTING
THE HEREDITARY MATERIALS OR
THE GENETIC INSTRUCTIONS
FROM PARENTS TO OFFSPRINGS.”
“DNA IS KNOWN AS
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID. IT IS
AN ORGANIC COMPOUND THAT
HAS A UNIQUE MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE. IT IS FOUND IN ALL
PROKARYOTIC CELLS AND
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 JOHANNES JAMES WATSON & FRANCIS
CRICK
FRIEDRICH Who Discovered DNA?
MIESCHER
DNA was first recognized and identified by the Swiss biologist Johannes Friedrich Miescher in 1869 during his research on white
blood cells.
Who gave DNA structure?
The double helix structure of a DNA molecule was later discovered through the experimental data by James Watson and Francis
Crick. Finally, it was proved that DNA is responsible for storing genetic information in living organisms.
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 DNA Structure
The DNA structure can be thought of as a twisted ladder. This structure is described as a double-helix,
nucleic acid, and all nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides. The
as illustrated in the figure. It is a
DNA molecule is composed of units called nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of three
different components such as sugar, phosphate groups and nitrogen bases.

The basic building blocks of DNA are nucleotides, which are composed of a sugar group, a phosphate group,
and a nitrogen base. The sugar and phosphate groups link the nucleotides together to form each strand of
DNA. Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) are four types of nitrogen bases.

These 4 Nitrogenous bases pair together in the following way: A with T, and C with G. These base
pairs are essential for the DNA’s double helix structure, which resembles a twisted ladder.
NUCLEOTIDE

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NOTE: The order of the nitrogenous bases determines the genetic code or the DNA’s instructions.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite
directions(ANTIPARALLEL). These strands are held
together by the hydrogen bond that is present
between the two complementary bases. The strands are
helically twisted, where each strand forms a right-
handed coil, and ten nucleotides make up a single
turn.

The pitch of each helix is 3.4 nm. Hence, the distance

between two consecutive base pairs (i.e., hydrogen-
bonded bases of the opposite strands) is 0.34 nm.

Among the three components of DNA structure, sugar is

the one which forms the backbone of the DNA
molecule. It is also called deoxyribose. The nitrogenous
bases of the opposite strands form hydrogen bonds,
forming a ladder-like structure.
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 DNA Types
There are three different DNA types:

• A-DNA: It is a right-handed double helix similar to the B-DNA form. Dehydrated DNA takes an A form that protects the DNA during extreme
conditions such as desiccation. Protein binding also removes the solvent from DNA, and the DNA takes an A form.
• B-DNA: This is the most common DNA conformation and is a right-handed helix. The majority of DNA has a B type conformation under
normal physiological conditions.
• Z-DNA: Z-DNA is a left-handed DNA where the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern. It was discovered by Andres Wang and
Alexander Rich. It is found ahead of the start site of a gene and hence, is believed to play some role in gene regulation.

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 Chargaff’s Rule

Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, discovered

that the number of nitrogenous bases in the
DNA was present in equal quantities. The
amount of A is equal to T, whereas the amount
of C is equal to G.
In other words, the DNA of any cell from any
organism should have a 1:1 ratio of purine and
pyrimidine bases.

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 PACKAGING OF DNA :
Have you ever wondered how DNA is present in a nucleus smaller than it? This can be explained by the process of DNA
packaging.
DNA is an organic, complex, molecular structure found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and also in many viruses. It is a hereditary
material which is found in the nucleus of the cell and is mainly involved in carrying genetic information.
A typical DNA strand has a length of approximately 2.2 meters, which is much longer than
a nucleus.
Prokaryotic cells can be distinguished from eukaryotic cells by the absence of a well-defined nucleus. However, their negatively charged DNA is
arranged in a region called the nucleoid. They appear as a loop wrapped around a protein molecule having a positive charge.
All eukaryotes have a well-defined nucleus that contains DNA. DNA is a negatively charged polymer, packed compactly within the chromatin,
engirdling the histone proteins, a ball of positively charged proteins.
The octamer of histone proteins is wrapped with a DNA helix, giving rise to a structure called nucleosomes. The
nucleosomes are further coiled, which results in the formation of chromatin fibres. Chromatin fibres are stained thread-
like structures, whereas nucleosomes are beads present over them. These chromatin fibres condense to form chromosomes
during mitosis.

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 PACKAGING OF DNA :
Histones :
Histones are the proteins promoting the DNA packaging into chromatin fibres. Histone
proteins are positively charged, possessing several arginine and lysine amino acids
binding to the negatively charged DNA.
There are two types of Histones:
• Core Histones : H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are the core histones. Two H3 and H4 dimers
and two H2A and H2B dimers form an octamer.
• Linker Histones : Linker histones lock the DNA in place onto the nucleosome and can
be removed for transcription.

Histones can be modified to change the amount of packaging a DNA does. The addition
of the methyl group increases the hydrophobicity of histones. This results in tight DNA
packaging.
Acetylation and phosphorylation make the DNA more negatively charged and loosens the
DNA packaging.
Enzymes that add methyl groups to histones are called histone methyltransferases. The
enzymes that add acetyl groups to the histones are called histone acetyltransferase, while
the ones that remove the histones are called histone deacetylases.
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 PACKAGING OF DNA :
Why is DNA packaging required?
The length of the DNA is around 3 meters which needs to be
accommodated within the nucleus, which is only a few micrometers in
diameter. In order to fit the DNA molecules into the nucleus, it needs to be
packed into an extremely compressed and compact structure called
chromatin.

During the initial stages of DNA packaging, the DNA is reduced to an 11

nm fiber that denotes approximately 5-6 folds of compaction. This is
achieved through a nucleosome order of packaging.

There are three orders of DNA packaging

The first order of DNA packaging – Nucleosome.

The second order of DNA packaging – Solenoid fiber.
The third order of DNA packaging – Scaffold loop Chromatids
Chromosome

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 DNA Function
DNA is the genetic material which car­ries all the hereditary information. Genes are the small
segments of DNA, consisting mostly of 250 – 2 million base pairs. A gene code for a
polypeptide molecule, where three nitrogenous bases sequence stands for one amino acid.

Polypeptide chains are further folded in secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures to form
different proteins. As every organism contains many genes in its DNA, different types of
proteins can be formed. Proteins are the main functional and structural molecules in most
organisms. Apart from storing genetic information, DNA is involved in:

 Replication process: Transferring the genetic information from one cell to its daughters
and from one generation to the next and equal distribution of DNA during the cell division
 Mutations: The changes which occur in the DNA sequences
 Transcription
 Cellular Metabolism
 DNA Fingerprinting
 Gene Therapy
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 WHAT IS RNA?
RNA is a ribonucleic acid that helps in
the synthesis of proteins in our body.
This nucleic acid is responsible for
the production of new cells in the
human body. It is usually obtained from
the DNA molecule. RNA resembles the
same as that of DNA, the only
difference being that it has a single
strand unlike the DNA which has two
strands and it consists of an only
single ribose sugar molecule in it.
Hence is the name Ribonucleic acid. RNA
is also referred to as an enzyme as it
helps in the process of chemical
reactions in the body. ZOEFILES
 Basic Structure of RNA

The ribonucleic acid has all the components same to that

of the DNA with only 2 main differences within it. RNA
has the same nitrogen bases called the adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine as that of the DNA except for the Thymine which
is replaced by the uracil. Adenine and uracil are
considered as the major building blocks of RNA
and both of them form base-pair with the help of 2
hydrogen bonds.

RNA resembles a hairpin structure and like the

nucleotides in DNA, nucleotides are formed in this
ribonucleic material(RNA). Nucleosides are nothing but
the phosphate groups which sometimes also helps in the
production of nucleotides in the DNA.
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 RNA Types
There are various types of RNA, out which most well-known and most commonly studied
in the human body are :

tRNA – Transfer RNA

The transfer RNA is held responsible for choosing the correct protein or the amino acids
required by the body in-turn helping the ribosomes. It is located at the endpoints of each
amino acid. This is also called as soluble RNA and it forms a link between the messenger
RNA and the amino acid.

RRNA-Ribosomal RNA
The rRNA is the component of the ribosome and are located within the in the cytoplasm of
a cell, where ribosomes are found. In all living cells, the ribosomal RNA plays a
fundamental role in the synthesis and translation of mRNA into proteins. The rRNA is
mainly composed of cellular RNA and are the most predominant RNA within the cells of all
living beings.

mRNA – Messenger RNA.

This type of RNA functions by transferring the genetic material into the ribosomes and
pass the instructions about the type of proteins, required by the body cells. Based on the
functions, these types of RNA is called the messenger RNA. Therefore, the mRNA plays a
vital role in the process of transcription or during the protein synthesis process.
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Functions of RNA
The ribonucleic acid – RNA, which are mainly composed of nucleic acids, are involved in a
variety of functions within the cell and are found in all living organisms including bacteria,
viruses, plants, and animals. These nucleic acid functions as a structural molecule in cell
organelles and are also involved in the catalysis of biochemical reactions. The different types of
RNA are involved in various cellular process. The primary functions of RNA:

 Facilitate the translation of DNA into proteins

 Functions as an adapter molecule in protein synthesis
 Serves as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosomes.
 They are the carrier of genetic information in all living cells
 Promotes the ribosomes to choose the right amino acid which is required in building up of new
proteins in the body.

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