Motion of a charged particle in electric and magnetic fields

The force F acting on a particle of electric charge q with instantaneous velocity v, due
to an external electric field E and magnetic field B, is given by the Lorentz equation:

        
F  q ( E  v  B )  qE  qv  B  F E  F B

Electric force : FE = qE Magnetic force: FB = qv × B

A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation

as the E field
while

due to B will curve perpendicularly to both the instantaneous velocity vector

v and the B field according to the right-hand rule
 Magnetic force: FB = qv × B
Magnetic force FB is perpendicular to velocity

does not contribute to acceleration FB  v  FB does no work on the particle

 can be used for focusing and guiding

B  determines curvature of trajectory: mv2 /r = qBv  r =mv/qB if B is

uniform.
 Electric force FE = qE
• component parallel to velocity: acceleration

• component perpendicular to velocity: focussing and guiding

• E  determines curvature of trajectory : mv2 /r = qE  r

=mv2 /qE

Only FE can increase the particle energy

but
Perpendicular component of FE or FB can deflect the beam

FE or FB for deflection? Assume v  c  Bending by Magnetic field

of 1 T (feasible) same bending by electric field requires 3108 V/m
(NOT feasible)

FB is by far the most effective in order to change the

particle direction
 Acceleration techniques

Linear accelerators:

• electrostatic
• radio-frequency (RF) electric field
• induction (pulsed EM field)
Particles focused by electric field or separate magnetic and electric
fields.

Circular accelerators:
• RF electric field
• induction
particles accelerated by electric field guided and focused by
magnetic fields
 Circular accelerators:

• Betatron

• Cyclotron

• Synchro-cyclotron

• Isochronous cyclotron

• Synchrotron

• Storage ring
 Cyclotron (1931)

• Lawrence and Livingston

• inspired by Widerö linac: “wound-up” linac

A cyclotron is a machine
used to accelerate charged
particles to high energies.
The first cyclotron was built
by Ernest Orlando Lawrence
and his graduate student, M.
Stanley Livingston, at the
University of California,
Berkley, in the early 1930's.
A cyclotron consists of two D-shaped metallic cavities sandwiched between two
electromagnets.
A radioactive source is placed in the center of the cyclotron and the electromagnets are turned
on.
The radioactive source emits charged particles. It just so happens that a magnetic field can bend
the path of a charged particle so, if everything is just right, the charged particle will circle around
inside the D-shaped cavities. However, this doesn't accelerate the particle.

In order to do that, the two D-shaped cavities have to be hooked up to a radio wave generator.
This generator gives one cavity a positive charge and the other cavity a negative charge. After a
moment, the radio wave generator switches the polarity the cavities.
The polarity switches back and forth as long as the radio wave generator is on. It is this
switching of charges that accelerates the particle.
If the amplitude of the oscillating radio wave applied to D is V. Then energy gained by the one
(in each cycle) when it come in vacant space between the D = qV
When the ions will be inside the cavity it’s will not change as D are metallic they will act as
 Cyclotron Frequency
mv2 /r = qBv
 r/v =m/qB

The static magnetic field is

applied in perpendicular
direction to the electrode plane,
enabling particles to re-
encounter the accelerating
voltage many times at the same
phase. To achieve this, the
frequency of RF voltage applied
must match the particle's
cyclotron resonance frequency

f =qB/2  m
cyclotron resonance frequency depends on q/m & B but does
not on v and r
Energy of ions: E = ½ mv2
=1/2 qvBr
= (qBr)2 /2m
=2m(rf)2
 Energy of ion beam increases as radius of the dee increases.
For cyclotron the maximum imparted to energy the charge particle is limited
due to:
(i)limitation in maximum field strength could be produced
(ii)the limited power and frequency of the oscillator
(iii)relativistic variation of mass with velocity when v approaches c.

Mass of high energy ions of low mass does not remain constant rather it
changes
according to the relation:
According to above equation the for Cyclotron energy the ions increases with increase
of the radius of the dees.
Mass of high energy (moving with the speed close to c) ions does not remain constant
rather it changes according to the relation:

Therefore the modified cyclotron resonance frequency is given by

Thus with increase of velocity f decreases and resonance condition will not be
maintained.
In practice resonance condition can not be maintained if the radius of the dees
become > 1.5 m.
Now the resonance condition can be maintained by counteracting the effect of
relativistic increase of mass with velocity. This could be done by two alternative
method.
i)If the frequency of RF oscillator is kept constant then the strength of the magnetic
field has to be increased in sequence with the relativistic increase of mass. In this case
the decrease of f due to relativistic mass effect will be balanced by the increase of
magnetic field. This can be achieved by specially designed electromagnet for which the
field at the centre is low and it increases gradually as the ion moves over orbit of
increasing radius. This types of cyclotron is called azimuthally varying field (AVF)
cyclotron or variable energy cyclotron.
ii)The other method of compensation for decrease in f due to relativistic mass increase
effect is to reduce the frequency of applied RF field with increase of velocity of the ion
so that the frequency of RF oscillator can cope up with the change of rotational
frequency of the ion with the increase of velocity. This type of cyclotron is known as
frequency modulated cyclotron or synchocyclotron.
 Phase stable orbit
If a ion moves in a uniform magnetic field in a
circular Path with constant velocity then its
energy will remain constant and the orbit of the
ion in this case is known as stable orbit.

If the ion crosses the dees at point A of the

figure then it will neither gain nor loss any
energy and it will move in a circular path. So if
assume that the ions crosses the dees at A then
we can easily explain phase stability.

On the other hand if a ion crosses the dee at point A ʹ (falling cycle) then it will absorb
some energy in consequence its mass will increase if it has a velocity close to c and in
turn the velocity of the ion will decrease and it will reach the dee at a later time in the
next cycle. So in the next cycle this ion will cross the dees at point A with all other ions.
Similarly if a ion cross the dee at point Aʺ then its energy will decrease and in
consequent mass will also decrease. Due to this the ion will revolving the orbit with
higher velocity and in the next cycle it will cross the cycle at point A. In this way ions can
be revolved in path of constant radius.
It may be noted that passing through point A is not compulsory for phase stability. The
phase stability can be maintained for any point of the RF voltage.
 SYNCHROCYCLOTRON
or
Frequency modulated cyclotron

It has only one dee.

RF voltage is applied across the dee and ground

Charge particles are injected from ion source

The particles takes energy from RF field

and get accelerated whenever they enter
or leave the dee.
The applied magnetic field magnetic
field makes the ions move in circular path.
Radius of the circular path increases as
the ions get energy from RF field.

When the velocity of ions become close to c the cyclotron condition will be violated
as the resonance freq. decreases due to relativistic increase of mass of the ions,

To maintain phase stability freq. of RF voltage is continuously and slowly changed,

by slowly rotating the movable vanes of the variable capacitor. In this way charge
particles are constrained to move in circular orbit of constant radius.
BETATRON
Construction of Betatron:
The schematic diagram of a betatron is shown in (Fig.a)
It consist of the following :
1. Highly evacuated annular tube known as DOUGHNUT (Fig. b)
2. Specially designed electromagnet (Fig. c)
3. Electron gun for producing electrons.
The distance between the poles of the magnet is smaller at inner part than in the
iouter part. Therefore the magnetic field at the central part of the magnet will be
stronger than outer part. The doughnut chamber is placed between the poles of the
electromagnet and the electromagnet is fed with an alternating current of frequency
60 or 180 Hz.

Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c

Operating principle:

The main working principle of betatron is same as that of the transformer. We

know that whenever an alternating (a.c.) emf is applied in the primary coil an
a.c. voltage will be induced in the secondary. According to Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory for generation of this induced emf presence of a
secondary coil is not compulsory.

In case of betatron machine electron is injected in the doughnat chamber when

the current in the primary coil is zero (Fig. d).

Now the applied magnetic field produced by the

a.c. current has two effects on the injected
electron beam:
I.The a.c. current in the magnet will produce an
induced emf in the doughnat since the magnetic
flux inside the cavity of the doughnat changes
with time. This induced emf will add energy to
the electrons and in turn accelerate them.
II. The magnetic field is perpendiculer to the
electron velocity this will exert a radial force on
the electrons and keep it moving in circular path
of constant radius. Fig d
Electrons from the electron gun are injected in the doughnat when magnetic field is
zero in the 1st quarter cycle (Fig. d).
** Electrons will make several revolutions and gain energy before the magnetic field
reaches to its maximum positive value. At that time electrons are pulled out of the
machine by using another strong electromagnet.

BETATRON CONDITION

Let us assume that at any instant (t) the magnetic field is B and the flux through the
doughnat is Φ. Since the applied emf is a.c.
Therefore the induced emf = dΦ /dt
Work done on the electron in one revolution = e × (dΦ /dt)
Let the radius of the path of the electron is r and the tangential force acting on the
electron is F.
Therefore , F × 2πr = e × (dΦ /dt)
F= (e/ 2πr) × (dΦ /dt)
This force will increase the energy of the electron and in turn will tend to increase the
radius of the orbit. But it will be kept in the orbit of constant radius by the magnetic
field B.
The inward radial force due to magnetic field is Bev.
Therefore, Centrifugal force mv2/ r = Bev
p = mv = Ber
According to Newton’s law,
Force acting on the electron,
dp/dt = er (dB/dt)
Therefore,
er (dB/dt) = (e/ 2πr) × (dΦ /dt)
dΦ /dt = 2πr2 (dB/dt)
Integrating we get,
Φ – Φ0 = 2πr2 B
Which is betatron condition.