Welc

ome
GRAMM
AR IN
USE
Elements of Tenses
Grammar
Parts of speech Voices

Punctuation & Conditionals and

Capitalization Modals
Conjunction Reported Speech
 SENTENCES
ELEMENTS

e m t
c t pl ct rb jec
jun o m t b je Ve u b
A d C en O S
Subject: is the performer of an action. It is generated by a noun or

any of its equivalents: a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a noun

clause.

Verbs are words that can tell us when something existed or come

to pass and they are constitute the predicates in a sentence.

There are three types ofComplete
subject and predicates:Compound
Simple
Object is the receiver of the action in a sentence. It can be any word or

group of words functioning as a noun, and each type of object can also be

direct or indirect.

♠ Direct Object is the noun or pronoun that directly receives the action

of the verb.

Example: "I wrote a letter." (What did I write? A letter.)

♠ Indirect Object is the noun or pronoun that states to whom/to what

Adjuncts : are words, phrases, clauses that are not necessary to the
structure of the clauses but add extra information or detail to them.
They can be word, phrase or clause.
A. He drove away quickly.
B. Abebe helped Aster in the restaurant on Tuesday.
C. I was late because the traffic was heavy.

They can appear: beginning, middle and end of a sentence.

Place Frequen Manner
Time Degree Reason
cy
UNIT TWO
 PARTS OF SPEECH

Noun Verb Adjective

Adverb Pronoun Preposition

Nouns: Nouns are words that name people, places, or things. They
function as the subject, an object of a verb.

♠ The dog chased its tail. (“dog” is subject “tail” is object)

♠ Your backpack is under the table. (“table” is the object of the
preposition)
♠ Tommy seems like a real bully.

The are eight kinds of nouns as follow:

Countable : a cup,
Common and DISCUSS
two Nouns:
Proper cups

He sat on the chair. IONS

Solomon is my brother.
Uncountable : tea, sugar, information …
2
Concrete : name of tangible things: Tana, Solomon.. 1
Collective Nouns : family, team, crew, committee, club…
Abstract : name of intangible things: concepts, ideas, feelings,
characteristics, attributes.. (love, hate, emotion…)
Compound Nouns: football, bed room, policeman…
 Noun Phrase and Claus
A noun phrase is a group of two or more words that function together as
a noun in a sentence.

Elements of noun phrase are : articles, démonstrative adjectives,

possessive adjectives, adjectives, Numbers, quantifier, possessives…

Example: Her skill at tennis is much admired.

He made all necessary arrangements before leaving.
 Cont’ d

A noun clause is a dependent clause that is able to function

grammatically like a noun. A noun clause always begins with relative

pronouns and subordinate conjunctions.

♥ While I am teaching, my son stays with my brother.

♥ Politicians are who create the laws.

Adverbs: Adverbs can tell us something about the action in a sentence
by modifying a verb by telling us how, when, where, etc. Categories of
Adverbs

♠ Adverbs of Manner : beautiful, slowly, well, softly, sadly, loudly,

♠ Adverbs of Place : far away, outside, north, here, there
♠ Adverbs of Frequency : annually, daily, usually, often, weekly...
♠ Adverbs of Time : tomorrow, today, yesterday , now
♠ Adverbs of purpose : in order that, hence, because…
I have to run quickly down the street each morning after breakfast in
 Adverbial clauses
An adverbial clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate and is used, like a regular adverb, to modify adjectives, verbs,
and adverbs.

♠ I will arrive when dinner is ready.

♠ Solomon brings his sunglasses everywhere he goes.
♠ I admire you because you are an inspiration to many people.

NB: adverbial clause is always dependent clause.

 Adjectives
An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun to make the
sentence clearer and more specific.
♠ What kind? ; How many? ; Which one?

 quantity, quality, size, age, shape, color, proper adjective (often

nationality, other place of origin, or material) purpose or qualifier is
the order of adjectives in English sentences.
Example : My brother rode a beautiful big black breed horse in the
 CATEGORIES OF
ADJECTIVES

it ve v e v e
i y, r s ,
a iv e r, ti , t f ie h
t r t, s s u g a ic h b u e r t i uc )
ns a ) e y o r o h t r i v n m tle
o h
t s e s s s , e r w ) i s h , r) e ua , lit
m , o i t , y
De this , tho P , h r) In h a t o se D a c t h e
y ou e ei
Q a n l,
a
( se m ( w w h ( m
( ve r
e (
th se
 VERBS
According to Herring (2016), verbs are used to indicate the
actions, processes, conditions, or states of beings of people or
things.

A word that is the grammatical center of a predicate and

expresses an act, occurrence, or mode of being is verb.

In English there are around 13 types of verbs.

 Finite, non Auxiliary, Transitive,
finite, Regular, Action, Stative, intransitive
irregular Reflexive, factitive,
Light causative
 Regular
Factitive
Stative verbs,
indicate
verbs
Finite which
indicate
havestate means
of the DISCUSS
that indicate
a person,
subjects “-d”
condition
and orofor
place, “-ed”
the issubject,
thing. added
answer
grammatical toopinions,
theirperson,
the
tense, base and
form to
question
Light
ofcreate
possession, how
verbsdoare
Irregular
both
emotion
number. the
a person,
notverbs
Example:
past
senses
that
have The
IONS
simple
place,
(seem,
do not
lion
spelling is
tensewas
or thing
look,
carry
the
rules
andchanged.
hear, past
taste,participle.
kingunique
that of the
we
feel).
meaning
follow to on
canjungle. create D
theirthe
Examples: elect, appoint, make, choose, deem, assign, C
own, but instead
Non-finite
past simple tensedo depend
notpast
and haveontenses
another
participles. word that
or subjects that follow them to to.
they correspond
name, select, judge, B
become
Auxiliary meaningful.
Example:
verbs are Running
that add is good for meaning
functional health. to other “main”
Reflexive are verbs whose subjects are also their direct objects
A
Example:
verbs A
in a I tookThey
transitive
clause. a shower
are before
describes
used to breakfast.
an
createaction thattenses,
different is negatives,
happening to
that is, the action of the verb is both committed and received by
Causative verbs and
indicate
something/someone,
interrogatives, that
emphasis atoperson,
which a place,
issentence.
known asor
thething is causing
verb’s an
direct object.
the same person or thing.
action or an Example:
event to happen: enable,
I was eating cause, have,
a delicious steakforce, let, keep,
for dinner last night.
Action verbs are verbs that are used to explain what the subject of a
 Igot
hold, accidentally
An and burned
require.
intransitive myself
describes anwith
actionthethat
hairdryer.
does not happen to something
sentence is actively doing: ran, swim, jump, move, look, and catch
 The baby is smiling at herself in the mirror.
or someone.
 PRONOUNS
Pronoun is a word used in place of nouns. We use pronouns to: refer to
a noun (called its antecedent) that usually comes before the pronoun

and make our writing clearer, smoother, and less awkward .

There are several types of pronouns:
Reflexive: myself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves; Interrogative:
which, who, whom, and whose; Indefinite: any, anybody, everything;

Demonstrative is used to point out a specific person or thing. this, that,

these
 PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or a
pronoun and another word in the sentence. There are two very
important rules to remember when using prepositions.

 The first rule is that to make sentences clear, specific

 Prepositions are generally followed by nouns or pronouns.
There are three types of prepositions:
Time Prepositions are used to help indicate when something happened,

happens or will happen: at, on, in, before, after, during, about, around

Prepositions of Place refers to place where something or someone

located. On-surface; In- inside or within confined boundaries; At- to

something at a specific point

Prepositions of Direction : they describe how something or someone

UNIT
FOUR
 SENTENCE COMBINATION
In writing, to vary the length of your sentences, you should combine two
or more short sentences in to one.
Two or more ideas can be connected in a sentence by two sentences
combination methods:

Coordination Subordination
Coordination is a method of joining two independent sentences by

using coordinators. In coordination, the status of the sentences is

not reduced when they are combined.

♥ coordinating conjunctions,
♥ correlative conjunctions and
♥ adverb conjunctions.
 Coordinating conjunctions

Note: When you use the above coordinating conjunctions to join complete sentences, use a
comma before the coordinators.
So:
OrShows cause
moreand
DISCUSS
effect relationship.
Nor: :For:
shows
Shows alternatives
Aequality formalor word
of two choices
for ideas.
negative ItItshows
because, has
this the
showssame
a result-cause
an addition of a
meaning as therefore,
relationship
You must
negative point. between
(Note:come asIONS
a result.
two
youearly,
must or you X
independent
reversewillhappened,
the clauses.
miss the bus.
normal so Y verb
It shows
subject- Dlogical
C
happened.
consequence; it has the same
whenmeaning as because, the reason why.
positions in the second clause using nor). B
Azeb studied
Thepatient
driver hard,
couldn’t so she scored
control a good
the speed ofhegrade.
the car,
A
Yet : shows opposition; also shows emphasis (a eat
The didn’t eat his dinner, nor did hisfor
stronger
he was totally
lunch.
but)
drunk.
But: Shows
There areopposition or contrast
many parking between
places in two
Injibara ideas. It has
University, yet the same
no one
Note: When
And: you use
Shows the above
equality coordinating
between
meaning as however, except, onhas the
thecar. two
other hand
conjunctions
ideas. It to addition; it
shows

join has
complete
the samesentences,
meaning as use a comma
in addition, before the
along with
She studied hard, but she failed the examination.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
 ADVERB CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctive adverbs, unlike coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions, are the only ones that can be moved to another position in
the clause without changing the meaning.
Most adverb conjunctions are preceded by a semi colon and followed
by a comma. There are some exceptions.
The adverb conjunctions like still and also are not preceded by a
semicolon. Some other adverb conjunctions like otherwise and then are
preceded by a semi colon but not followed by a comma.
 Use Conjunctive adverbs

Adding Ideas Additionally, also, besides, furthermore, in addition,

moreover

Cause and Effect Accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore, thus

Clarifying a Point for example, for instance, namely, that is

Comparing Two Ideas Likewise, similarly

Contrasting Ideas However, instead, nevertheless, rather, regardless, still

Emphasizing a Point Again, certainly, indeed, moreover, of course

Alternative Instead, otherwise

Subordination is the joining of an independent clause and a

dependent clause in the same sentence by using subordinators.

In subordination, the status of one of the clause to be combined is

reduced in to a subordinate (dependent) one. The linking devices

we use in subordination are:

♠ subordinating conjunctions and

♠ relative pronouns
 because, since, as, as though, even though,
though, even if, whereas, while, although
Subordinatin
g
Conjunction even if, if, as if, as long as, provided that,
unless, provided

who, that, which, where, when, whose

Relative
pronouns
whom, of which, why
Relative pronouns are words used to combine two clauses into one.

Besides combining the two clauses, the relative pronoun acts as the

subject or object of the verb in the relative clause.

Relative pronouns help us to combining simple sentences to create

complex structures. Like the other subordinating conjunctions relative

pronouns are used to join subordinate clauses with independent

sentences.
 SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE
For person who/that whom/who/that whose
For things which/that which/that whose/of which

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE

For person Who whom/who whose
For things Which which whose, of which
UNIT
FIVE
 TENSE
degree of completeness.
S
Tense is a form of a verb which shows the time of an action and its

TYPES OF
TENSES

Present Past Future

tense tense tense
 Present
PRESENT
Continuous:
Simple Present: usually
PERFECT:
Present Perfect DISCUSS
A sentencedefines
is used toisshow
Continuous:
an act that
presented
a link
helpful to between
show that
is goingpresent
in simple on at the
the present
there isand
tense to
time describe
of speaking.
an action that's happening at present and does not indicate
past
on
and is started
something
the
commonly
when the is
♥ Something
radio, and
in theused
action
taking
when
past in
IONS
andeveryday
is place
expected
writing now,
conversations,
is continuing
towhile
letters.
in the
at the present news,
time.
end. speaking and has a definite 4
♠ To express an activity that began in the past and continues into
end aswell.
3
♠ scientific facts Time table
The
the present. action that happened at the past and has present result, 2
Example: Please truths
wait for a moment, Mekuriaw is talking to
 universal
♠Example:
One’s life experience
Those workmen have been fixing the roads.
something happen 1
Mary.repeatedly
♠ ♠
♠ Used WhenThe action that
to explain
something started
an activity before
is already and still
thatdecided
began in
andcontinue
past but hasasnow
arranged well to
 work done on daily basis a fact that is true for a long
finished.
perform it. subject + has/have + v3 + object
time
Signal Example:
words: JohnI’m
Example:
already, has
just,been
yet, baking
planning ever, cakes.
to meet
never,the Director
still, tonight.
for since…
Structure: sub + V1 + s/es + object
♣ To indicate an undesirable/always
Subject have/has + been + verbhabit.+ -ing +object
The The past
past continuous
Simple
perfectPast:
is a isverb
used DISCUSS
is a tense
tense of
to talk describing
about
used to atalk the actions
completed
Past Perfect Continuous Tense is a continuous action that was about orin
action
somethingevents
timeinbefore
athat
a time before
now. now,ofwhich
Thesomething
time the began
action canin be
the past
inthe and interrupted
thepast.
recent past or thebydistant
happened

♠WeWe use
before

the
and
past
IONS
else that
completed sometime in the past falls under.
another past
past action.
is also
action duration is not important.
perfect for an action
in

before a past time. 4

use the past perfect continuous for an action over a period
To talk about
 Tothe interrupted action in with
the past.
3
express finished action specific time expression.
up to Example:
a past time.I knew I had forgotten something. 2
Examples:
 To expressI wasawatching
series of TV when she
completed called.
actions. 1
♠ Express an imaginary
Examples: Everythingthings in the
had been past.so well up to then.
going
To express
 Torepeated
express actions
durationwhich are temporary,
of time in the past.only for a period.
Example:
To describe If I hadthat
something known
startedyou werepast
in the ill,and
I would haveup
continued visited
you. Examples:
to another  To or
action Mytimecar in
explain wastheoff
habits inthe
theroad.
past. I was“used
past using travelling
to”. to work by
bus that week. Structure: subject + v2 + object
♠ With time She
Examples: clauses such
had been as when,
working at after,
that before,
company forasa year
soon as,
To talk
when about
immediately,
she a
at
met past
the arrangement.
moment
James.
Signal words: a go, last year, yesterday…
Future
Future perfect
Perfectcontinuous DISCUSS
Simple Future Tense is used for those sentences which refer to the
is used to tense
express
is aan
verb
acttense
that that
is predicted
describesto be
Future Continuous tense is a verb tense that indicates something
actions which will occur later, in future. This requires a future tense
actions
finishedthat
within
will acontinuous
IONS
certain span upofuntil
timea in
point
the in
future.
the future.
will occur in the future and continue for an expected length of time.
auxiliary verb even though the verb would be unmarked. 4

♠ When
to show thethat
action
an action
is expressed
will finish
as a continuous
before a certain
action.time (by then,
♠ It is used as an ordinary continuous tense.
 To express the speaker's opinions, assumptions, speculations
3
by Examples:
that time) By the end of the month, he will have been 2
Example: They will
about the future. be watching a film.
training
Example: horses
By thefor end
twenty
of next
years.month, he will have been here 1
♠ It is  used
It toisexpress future without
used similarly intention.
for future habitual actions which we
for ten
But if years.
we mention the number of horses or mountains, or
Example:
assume I will
willbe helping
take place.Mary tomorrow.
♠ used
divide this
foraction
an action
in anywhich
way, weat must
a given
usefuture
the future
timeperfect.
will be in the
 It is used in sentences containing clauses of condition
past.
 To express an intention + a decision to fulfill it.
♠ To talk about an action that will be completed before another
UNIT
SIX
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
In English, the verb form which indicates whether the subject (person
or object) of a sentence do something or something has been done on
the subject called the voice.
1. Why the writer/ speaker use passive instead of active?
2. How can we change the active sentences into passive?

NB: perfect continuous tense, and intransitive verb do not have passive
form. Some examples of intransitive verbs: agree, belong, appear,
 Tense Active form Passive form
Simple present -s/es+ Is/are/am+v3
Professor Asrat teaches
Soliana. Soliana
is thought by professor Asrat
Presentconti. am/is/are + -ing am/is/are + being + -ed/-en
The students are learning English. English is being learned.
Presentperfe. Has/have+V3 has/have+been+V3
They have chosen the best movie. The best movie has been chosen.
Past Subject + V2 + object was/were+V3
simple
They announced the winner’s name. The winner’s name was announced.
Pastconti. S + was/were + ing was/were+being+V3
She was reading a novel. A novel was being read by her.
Pastperfe. Subject + had + V3 + object had+been+V3
I had finished my work. My work had been finished by me.
Simplefuture Will+infinitive Will+ be +v3

Future
continuous Will+ be + v-ing Will+ be + being + v3

Futureperfect Will+ have + v3 Will+ have + been+v3

Pastconditionals Would+infinitive Would+ be + v3

Modals Modals+infinitive Modals+ be + v3

Order Let + be +subject+object + v3

Suggestion Respectparents Youaresuggestedto

Advice Youshouldcomeearly. Youareadvisedto

Who Whoteachesyouwriting? Bywhom

Whom Whomdoesn’thelove? who

What Whatforcesher? Bywhat

When Whendoyoureadbooks? When

UNIT
SEVE
N
 CONDITIONALS SENTENCES
Conditional sentences/tenses are used to speculate/wonder about
what could happen; what might have happened; what we wish
would happen
There are four main ways of constructing conditional sentences in
English.
♠ zero conditionals
♠ First conditionals
♠ Second conditionals
The
Thetype
type23 conditional
conditional isis usedDISCUSS
used toto refer
refer toto aa time
time that
that isis now
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future where
in the
or any
The zero conditional is used for when the time being referred to is
time,
past, and
and aa situation
situation that
that is
IONS
is unreal.
contrary to reality.
the situation is real. The type 1 conditional refers to a possible
now or always and the situation is real and possible. 3
condition and its probable result. 2
(if + past(ifperfect,
+ past ...
simple,
would...+would
have ++past
infinitive)
participle) 1
(if + present simple, ... present simple) 0
(if + present simple, ... will + infinitive)
IfIfI spoke
you had Italian,
studied
I would
harder,
be working
you wouldin Italy.
have passed the
If it rains, the grass gets wet.
exam.
If it rains today, you will get wet.
UNIT
EIGH
T
 MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that provide additional and specific meaning to
main verbs in sentences. When we use modals, we need to consider the
following:
♠ A modal verb is not changed according to the number
♠ Modal always used with a verb in its basic form
♠ Modal verbs do not have infinitives or –ing forms
♠ Modal verbs do not have all the tenses
♠ They can have more than one meaning
♠ Modals can be used alone
 We use modals for
Permission
Wish Necessity
may, could,
may Must, have
can
to
Request Promise
can, could Will, shall
Possibility Advice:
May, might, should, ought
could to had better
UNIT
NINE
Reported speech is relating what someone said, but sometimes does not
use the person's actual words.

Direct speech means that when the writer or the speaker should use the
exact words of the original speaker quotation marks.
Example: He said, “I have lost my umbrella.”

In indirect speech, we give the exact meaning of a remark or a speech,

without necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.
Example: He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.
When the speaker or writer uses indirect speech to relate what a person
has said, there are three changes.
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Direct Indirect today that day

I He, she yesterday the day before

me Him, her the day before two days before

yesterday
my His, her
tomorrow the next day/the
mine His, hers
following day
we They next week/year etc. the following
week/year etc.
 DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
Simple Present Simple Past
“I never eat meat”, he explained. He explained (that) he never ate meat.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
“I’m waiting for Selam”, he said. He said (that) he was waiting for Selam.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
“I have found a flat”, he said. He said (that) he had found a flat.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
He said, “I’ve been waiting for ages”. He said (that) he had been waiting for ages.
 Simple Past Past Perfect
“I took it home with me”, she said. She said he had taken it home with her.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
"We were living in BDR", they told They told me that they had been living
me. in BDR.
Future Simple Present Conditional
He said, “I will/shall be in BDR on He said (that) he would be in BDR on
Monday”. Monday.
Future Continuous Conditional Continuous
“I will be using the car on the 24h”, She said she’d been using the car on the
Request Statement
“Please help me”. She asked me to help her.
Questions Statement
He said, “Where is she going?” He asked where she was going.
Commands Statement
He said, “Lie down, Tom.” He told Tom to lie down.
“YES” and “NO” questions Statement
He said, “Can you swim?” and I said “No” He asked (me) if/whether I could swim and I said I could not.

Offers Statement
“Shall I bring you some tea?” He offered to bring me some tea.
Suggestions Statement
“Shall we meet at the office? He suggested meeting at the office.
“Let us have launch.” He suggested having launch.

Exclamations Statement
“What a lovely garden!" He remarked what a lovely garden it was.
 EXCEPTIONAL RULES OF REPORTED SPEECH
♠ Past modal verbs that do not change in reported speech are
might, could, would
Amare: "I would try it." //Tesema said he would try it.
♠ Reporting verb + -ing form: Verbs like admit, apologies for,
complain about
“I broke the window.”//She admitted breaking the
window.
♠ Reporting verb + infinitive: Verbs like advise, agree,
♠ If the direct speech express universal truth, habitual actions,

historical events

“The sun rises in the east.”//The sun rises in the east.

♠ If the direct speech used “past perfect” and “past perfect

continuous

♠ If the reported verbs of the direct speech are simple present

tense
እግዚአብሔር ይስጥልኝ