EUROPE

500 BCE - 250 BCE

Iron Age Europe
Over the last few centuries the coming of the Iron Age to
Europe has led to a large growth in populations
throughout the continent, as well as great advances in
culture.

Civilizing influences from the Middle East began again to

be felt by the peoples of south-eastern Europe in the
centuries after 1000 BCE. Phoenician merchants
developed new trading networks across the
Mediterranean Sea. They brought with them knowledge
of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt – and
also an important new tool, alphabetic writing.

EUROPE IN 500 BCE

The Greeks
In the Mediterranean world, the huge Persian Empire made a major attempt to conquer the city-states
of Greece. This the Greeks successfully resisted. Then, under the leadership of the city of Athens, they
went on to register immense achievements in all fields of culture. Above all, Greek philosophers such
as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle have laid many of the foundations for later Western thought.

By 200 BCE, however, powerful new kingdoms to the north and east overshadow the city-states of
Greece. These large states have been carved out of the vast but short-lived empire of
Alexander the Great, who led the Greeks on an astonishing series of conquests over the Persians and
other peoples, as far as India.

These kingdoms are home to a new cosmopolitan civilization, a hybrid of Greek and Middle Eastern
cultures which modern scholars label “Hellenistic“.

The Romans

To the west, a new power has made its appearance in history, Rome. The people of this city have
expanded their power to control almost all Italy. Then, having defeated Carthage, that ancient and
wealthy city on the north coast of Africa, the Romans now dominate the western Mediterranean and
eastern Spain.

The Celts
In northern Europe, Celtic tribes have continued to spread out from Gaul to cover much of the
continent, and have thrown out offshoots into northern Italy, the Balkans and even Asia Minor.

EUROPE IN 250 BCE

MATERIALS USED DURING THIS PERIOD
Stone: Stone was the primary building material for many structures during this
time. It was used for constructing temples, city walls, fortifications, and
monuments. Marble, limestone, and granite were commonly used stones.

Wood: Wood was extensively used in construction, particularly for timber-

framed buildings, roofs, and interiors. It was also used for shipbuilding.

Terracotta and Brick: Terracotta and brick were widely used for building walls,
especially in regions where stone was less available. The Greeks and
Etruscans used terracotta for decorative elements on buildings and for roofing
tiles.

Metal: Metals such as bronze and iron were used for tools, weapons, and
decorative elements in architecture. Bronze was particularly important for
sculptures and architectural ornamentation.
STRUCTURES BUILT AT THIS TIME

Temples: Temples were significant architectural

structures in ancient Greece and other parts of Europe
during this period. They were built to honor various
gods and goddesses and were often located on
elevated sites.

City Walls: Many cities during this time were fortified

with walls made of stone or mud brick. These walls
served as defense against invasions and attacks.

Tombs and Burial Structures: In various cultures across

Europe, elaborate tombs and burial structures were
built to honor the dead. These ranged from simple
mounds to intricate underground chambers.
IN GREEK DURING THIS TIME
During the period from 500 to 250 BCE, Greek
architecture underwent significant developments,
especially during the Hellenistic period following
Alexander the Great's conquests. Temples remained
central but became more ornate, featuring elaborate
decorative elements and the emergence of the Corinthian
order. Urban planning advanced, with the construction of
larger theaters, public buildings like stoas and agora, and
expanded cities like Alexandria. Hellenistic kingdoms
blended Greek styles with local traditions, resulting in
grandiose architectural expressions. Sculpture continued
to adorn buildings with intricate depictions of mythology
and history. Overall, Greek architecture in this period
showcased a blend of continuity from earlier periods and
innovation influenced by the diverse cultural and political
landscape of the Hellenistic world.
VOLUME AND GEOMETRIC COMPARISON
Volume Comparison
Greek architecture during this period often
featured structures with large interior volumes,
particularly in monumental buildings like
temples and theaters. The temples, with their
spacious interiors and high ceilings, aimed to
create a sense of awe and grandeur.
Geometric Comparison
Greek architecture was characterized by
geometric precision and harmony. The
use of mathematical principles, such as
the golden ratio, influenced the
proportions and layout of buildings.
Symmetry and balance were key design
principles, with structures often exhibiting
bilateral symmetry and geometrically
pleasing proportions.
THE GREEK TEMPLES
THE THOLOS TEMPLE
A tholos is a form of building that was widely used in the classical
world. It is a round structure with a circular wall and a roof,
usually built upon a couple of steps (a podium), and often with a
ring of columns supporting a conical or domed roof.

It differs from a monopteros , a circular colonnade supporting a

roof but without any walls, which therefore does not have a cella
(room inside). Both these types are sometimes called rotundas.

An increasingly large series of round buildings were constructed

in the developing tradition of classical architecture until Late
antiquity, which are covered here. Medieval round buildings are
covered at rotunda. From the Renaissance onwards the classical
tholos form had an enduring revival, now often topped by a
dome, especially as an element in much larger buildings.

The tholos is not to be confused with the beehive tomb, or "tholos

tomb" in modern terminology, a distinct form in Late Bronze Age
Greece and other areas. But many other round tombs and
mausolea were built, especially for Roman emperors.
THE GREEK THEATERS
The Greek theater was an outdoor venue for dramatic performances, often situated on hillsides to take advantage of
natural slopes. Its key components included the theatron (seating area), orchestra (performance space for the chorus),
and skene (stage). Tiered seats accommodated spectators, with side aisles providing access to the orchestra. The
Romans adapted Greek theater architecture, sometimes modifying existing structures like the Theater of Dionysos.
Theaters were often linked to sacred festivals, with some directly associated with sanctuaries.
BOULEUTERION
The Bouleuterion (βουλευτήριον) was an important civic building in a Greek city, as it was the
meeting place of the boule (citizen council) of the city. These select representatives
assembled to handle public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis (in ancient Athens,
the boule was comprised of 500 members). The Bouleuterion generally was a covered,
rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker’s well in which an altar
was placed. The city of Priène has a particularly well-preserved example of this civic
structure, as does the city of Miletus.

HOUSES
Greek houses of the Archaic and Classical periods were relatively simple in design. Houses usually
were centered on a courtyard that would have been the scene for various ritual activities; the
courtyard also provided natural light for the often small houses. The ground floor rooms would have
included kitchen and storage rooms, perhaps an animal pen and a latrine; the chief room was the
andron—site of the male-dominated drinking party (symposion). The quarters for women and
children (gynaikeion) could be located on the second level (if present) and were, in any case,
segregated from the men’s area. It was not uncommon for houses to be attached to workshops or
shops. The houses excavated in the southwest part of the Athenian Agora had walls of mud brick
that rested on stone socles and tiled roofs, with floors of beaten clay.

The city of Olynthus in Chalcidice, Greece, destroyed by military action in 348 B.C.E., preserves
many well-appointed courtyard houses arranged within the Hippodamian grid-plan of the city.
House A vii 4 had a large cobbled courtyard that was used for domestic industry. While some rooms
were fairly plain, with earthen floors, the andron was the most well-appointed room of the house.