Electrical Measurements &

Instrumentation
Resistance Measurement
Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

When R is much smaller

than Voltmeter Resistance

When R is much larger

than Ammeter Resistance
Example

So voltmeter parallel resistance

10kx100 0= 10 Mohm
Wheatstone Bridge

Supply Voltage is not involved in calculation but it effects

bridge sensitivity
Example
 Sensitivity of WB
• The minimum change in the variable resistor
that makes the galvanometer pointer clearly
move from zero position
• The deflection may be as small as 1mm but it
must be visible.
 Sensitivity Calculation
• Finding the Thevenin Eq Circuit considering the Galvanometer Terminals
• The Thevenin Voltage
 Sensitivity Calculation
• Thevenin Eq Resistance

Rg is Galvanometer Resistance
 Sensitivity Calculation
Steps
• From previous circuit calculate VR-VS, knowing the deflection on galvanometer.
• This Voltage is the voltage added to either to VR or VS depending upon which
resistance was increased.
• Since Resistance is increased so the current flowing through that particular
Wheatstone branch will decrease. Calculate the new current.
• Knowing the new current, and the VR+∆VR is already known; calculate R+∆R
Example
 Low Resistance Measurement
Four Terminal Resistor
• Low resistances such as ammeter shunts (current
sense) have two sets of terminals; one for
current and other voltage.

• Such small resistance have many usage e.g

measure current through a circuit by connecting
it in series using current terminals and measure
voltage across the voltage terminals
Kelvin Double Bridge
 Kelvin Double Bridge
• Assume

As
 Example
• A Kelvin Bridge has following component
values at balance. P=10k, R=15K, Q=0.1,
A(p)=100, B(r)=150. The galvanometer has
1µA/mm sensitivity and a 2k coil resistance
Rg. Eb=50V and Source Resistance Rb=10.
Determine the measured value of S and the
smallest change in it that can be detected
 At bridge balance no current
passes through A and thus
VA=0. Verified by Falstad
simulation
Thus VQ=0.5V at balance
Actuall r= P||R + Q||S but Q||S << P||R

When S will decrease Vs will decrease and VQ will

increase by the same factor
 Low Resistance Measurement
Earth/Ground Resistance Measurement

Why is Earth connection Required ?

• To handle fault currents

For example consider above given figure. If the insulation gets damaged and
hot wire comes in contact with metal chassis, the earth wire provides a path
for the current to flow. This low resistance path will cause the breaker to trip
The ground resistance should be very low ( < 5Ω) so that breaker trips in case
of short circuit
 Earth Resistance Measurement
Fall of Potential Method
• Method used to measure
earth electrode resistance
• The supply could be AC or DC.
• Ground and Current
electrodes are fixed while the
potential electrode is moved
to get voltage drop at multiple
points.
• Why not use just Ground and
Current Electrode? Because
then we will be measuring the
applied voltage whereas we
want to measure the voltage
drop through the earth
Ground electrode must be
disconnected from installation so
that other parallel grounds don’t
interfere
 Fall of Potential Method

• Resistance is varied when Potential electrode is moved

• The reliable value is obtained when it is in the linear range.
• When Potential Electrode is very close to ground electrode, the Voltage drop is
minimal and thus resistance is approximately zero because electrode is made of
pure copper.
When potential electrode is close to Current electrode, the current density is
high there which caused interference and Voltmeter measure source voltage
instead of voltage drop
 Fall of Potential Method
Ground Test Instrument
• Fluke 1623 is a commercial
ground testing instrument.
• You can select the number of
probes to be used by the
knob
• For 3-pole Fall of potentional
method, the socket at the
bottom is connected to
ground electrode under
test[1].
• Top two are connected to
the other two electrodes
• The last three options on the
knob are for selective
measurement.
 Selective Measurement

• Ground Electrode doesn’t

need to be disconnected
• The total current i1+i2
comprises of electrode
under test current plus
the current i2 which going
to other earth electrodes
in the system
• A clamp connection is
added over the electrode
under test to know the
current going in it
 High Resistance measurement
• The measurement of high resistance of the
order of 1010 Ω or more is often required in
electrical equipment. For example,
– Insulation resistance of cables,
– leakage resistance of capacitors
Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

A micro Ammeter is used to measure very small current

 Voltmeter and Ammeter Method

• Ammeter Current comprises of Iv (Core to Insulation) and Is Surface leakage

current which flows across the surface
• Resistance Rv is Volume and Rs is Surface Leakage.
• Sometimes it is required to only measure Volume resistance In that case Is must
not pass through ammeter
• So guard wire is wound around insulation and connected before Ammeter.
• Now as Vm=0 so no surface current flows after ammeter. It doesn’t mean that
surface current doesn’t flow at all, but the current going through Ammeter
Example
Measure Volume Resistance Only
Guard Ring

Measuring Resistance of
insulation Material

Surface Leakage current doesn’t flow through G1,

but rather through G2
 Wheatstone for High Resistance Measurement
R is Volume resistance of material
Resistance b is surface resistance between upper plate and guard ring
Resistance c is surface resistance between lower plate and guard ring
At balance Voltage difference across b is zero, so consider it open cct.
Now only C is left in parallel to S. Since c much greater than S, it can also be
ignored as ewuivalent resistance in parallel will be close to S.
High Resistance Measuring Instrument
Megohmmeter

Measure insulation resistance

• Electronic Type (Battery Operated)
• Hand Operated
The resistance to be measured is connected between Line and
Earth terminal
 Megohmmeter Components
• Deflection and Control Coil at right angle in
such a way to produce torque in opposite
direction
• Permanent magnet
• DC Generator or Battery
• Pressure (Control) Coil resistance and Current
Coil (Deflection Coil) resistance to protect
instrument incase of low external resistance
under test
 Megohmmeter Working
• Resistance to be measured is connected across generator
and in series with deflection coil (current coil)
• The Control or Voltage coil is connected parallel to
generator with a resistance, so it’s deflection is proportional
to voltage applied
• At open circuit, deflection is produced by control coil and
pointer moves to ∞
• At short circuit, Deflection Coil torque makes the pointer
move to 0
• If any resistance Rx is connected, pointer is balanced
between an intermediate position
 Increasing DC Voltage
Voltage Multiplier
• If hand-cranked megohmmeter is not desired,
Battery voltage can be raised to a suitable
level by using Voltage Multiplier
Increasing DC Voltage
DC-DC Converter
 Locating Cable Faults
• Cable Faults are of two types
– Open Circuit
– Short Circuit or Ground
 Open Circuit Fault Location
• An unbroken conductor of same length as that of faulty (open circuit )
cable is required
• Two conductor in parallel , separated by a distance forms a capacitor
• Capacitance is proportional to length

C1/C2 + 1 = l1/l2 + 1
 Short Circuit Fault Location
Murray Loop Test(Ground)

Here too another wire of same length as that of wire under test is
required.
Connect one side of the wires to each other and the other side to
wheatstone bridge
Murray Loop Test(Ground)
=
 Short Circuit Fault Location
Murray Loop Test (Wires Short circuited)

• Murray test can also be used when two wires are short
circuited with the following connections
• One of the wires is connected to the Wheatstone Bridge
Short Circuit Fault Location
Varley Loop Test
 Varley Loop Test
When switch is at position 1

After getting values of Rx+Ry from 8-12 and Rx from 8-14, distance can be
calculated by folllwing equation

=
 References
[1] https://www.digikey.com/htmldatasheets/production/1555313/0/0/1/1625-2-1623-2-quick-
reference-guide.pdf