MACROMOLECULES AND

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Part1 1

PT. 1: MACROMOLECULES
Living beings are made up of a limited number of atoms, which combine
to form molecules, the building blocks of life.
Molecules vary enormously in size from simple molecules such as carbon
dioxide and water to macromolecules such as protein, lipids,
carbohydrates or nucleic material.
Smaller molecules are easily mobilised and more soluble; they tend to be
used for cellular activities such as metabolism.
Macromolecules, however, are used for storage, structural constitution or
in some special cases, informational molecules possessing genetic
material.
(a) Dehydration reaction: synthesizing a polymer

1 2 3

Short polymer Unlinked monomer

Dehydration removes
a water molecule,
forming a new bond.

1 2 3 4

Longer polymer

(b) Hydrolysis: breaking down a polymer

1 2 3 4

Hydrolysis adds
a water molecule,
breaking a bond.

1 2 3
CARBOHYDRATES
• These are molecules which contain the elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. They present with the general formula Cx(H2O)y, where x
and y are variables.
• In these molecules, Oxygen and Hydrogen are present in the same
proportions as in water, hence the name carbohydrates ( hydrates of
carbon)
• Their chemical reactions are defined by the different chemical groups
they possess namely:
i. They are all either aldehydes or ketones hence can easily be
oxidized ii. They all have hydroxyl groups.

Carbohydrates are divided into three main classes namely:

monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides
MONOSAC C HAR ID ES 1/2
These are the simplest forms of carbohydrates
They serve as building blocks for the larger carbohydrate
molecules They exist as single sugar units, are very sweet and
highly soluble.
They have a general formula of
(CH2O)n They are classified based on:
A) The number of carbon atoms present (3C=trioses, 4C=
tetroses, 5C= pentoses, 6C= hexoses etc.)
B) The presence of either an aldehyde group (an aldo
sugar/aldose) or a ketone group ( keto sugar/ketose)
MONOSAC C HAR ID ES 2/2
Functions of monosaccharides
SUGARS fFUNCTIONS

Trioses (glyceraldehyde, dihydroxyacetone) Intermediates during cellular respiration (glycolysis)

C3H6O3 Photosynthesis (dark reactions)
Pentoses (ribose, deoxyribose, ribulose) Synthesis of nucleic acids
C5H10O5 Synthesis of coenzymes (NAD, FAD)
ATP synthesis
CO2 acceptor during photosynthesis
Hexoses (glucose, fructose, galactose) Source of energy during respiration
C6H12O6 Synthesis of larger molecules (disaccharides and
polysaccharides)

The most common monosaccharide is glucose

The simplest monosaccharides are glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
Figure 5.3a

Aldose (Aldehyde Sugar) Ketose (Ketone Sugar)

Trioses: 3-carbon sugars (C3H6O3)

Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone
DISACCHARIDES
They consist of two monosaccharide molecules linked through a glycosidic
bond.
They are formed by a condensation reaction between the hydroxyl groups of
each molecule leading to the formation of water.
The bond is usually between carbon atoms 1&4 and they are usually formed
from hexoses.
The most common disaccharides include:

o Maltose= glucose + glucose o lactose= glucose +

galactose o Sucrose= glucose + fructose (most abundant
disaccharide in nature)
POLYSAC C HAR ID ES
These are even larger molecules made up of multiple sugar
units(>10 units).
They function chiefly as energy stores (starch and glycogen)
and as structural material (cellulose)
They are convenient storage molecules due to their large size
which makes them very insoluble in water, thus exerting no
osmotic or chemical influence on the cell and they can easily be
converted to simple sugars when need be.
Other complex molecules that resemble polysaccharides are
Chitin present in fungi and some arthropods and Murein
present in bacteria.
LIPID S
Lipids are a heterogenous group of hydrophobic molecules.
Lipids are a major source of energy for the body and equally serve as a
hydrophobic shield against foreign substances that try entering the cell.
Due to their high chemical variability, lipids cannot be defined accurately. They are
therefore loosely classified as being formed by the condensation of fatty acids
with an alcohol.
The building blocks of lipids are fatty acids. They have as general formula RCOOH
where R can be hydrogen or an organic group such as –CH3, -C2H5 and so on,
increasing by addition of a methyl group as the series unfolds.
Naturally occurring fatty acids present an even number of carbon atoms
The characteristically long tail of carbon and hydrogen atoms in fatty acids
constitutes the lipid hydrophobic tail. Many lipid properties are determined by
those tails, especially their
insolubility in water. 15
LIPID S
Fatty acids with one or more double bonds are termed unsaturated while
those without are saturated. Common fatty acids in man are stearic acid(18c/s),
palmitic acid(16c/s) and oleic acid(18c/u).
There exist two types of fatty acids based on endogenous synthesis:
A.) Essential fatty acids: Synthesis is not done within the organism and they can
only be gotten from our diet e.g. linoleic acid and linolenic acid
B.) Non-essential fatty acids: are synthesized within the body
Lipids are roughly classified as
Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids and glycolipids.
Figure 5.11

(b) Unsaturated fat

(a) Saturated fat

Structural
formula of a
saturated fat
molecule
Structural
formula of an
unsaturated fat
molecule
Space-filling
model of stearic
acid, a saturated
fatty acid Space-filling model
of oleic acid, an
unsaturated fatty
acid
Cis double bond
causes bending.
TR IGLYC ER ID ES
Triglycerides are formed by the condensation of one glycerol with three fatty
acid tails

These are the commonest lipids in nature and are further classified as fats or
oils if they are solid or liquid, respectively.
They are non-polar molecules mainly used for energy production. They have a
higher calorific quotient compared to glucose at an equal mass because of
their higher hydrogen content.
They are located beneath the dermis and thus provide a means of insulation
against heat loss.
They serve as support system for several organs.
PHOSPHOLIPID S
These are lipids containing a phosphate group.
Here, one of the OH groups in glycerol combines with phosphoric
acid instead while the other two combine with fatty acids.
As a result, the phosphate part of the molecule is polar while the tails
remain non-polar.
They help principally in the formation of the plasm membrane of
human cells.
They equally participate in the formation of the myelin sheath
 STER OID S
Steroids are highly complex, non-polar hydrocarbon rings.
The building blocks of steroids are sterols, with the commonest being
cholesterol which is produced by basically every animal.
They serve as precursors to bile salts and steroid hormones ( thyroid and sex
hormones)
They equally serve as cell membrane constituents in the animal cell
It assists in the metabolism of fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K) esp vit D
They assist in the formation of special cell messengers
GLYC OLIPID S
These are lipids associated to one or more sugar units.
They serve mainly as cellular recognition proteins on the cell surface
membrane
They equally assist in the formation of the myelin sheath that covers
nerve axons
AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
AMINO AC ID
These are macromolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen
atoms.
The building blocks of proteins are amino acids.

The general formula of amino acids isR-C-NH2

COOH
They possess both an acidic and a basic group, with a positive charge at on the
basic pole and a negative charge on the acidic pole.
As such, they are termed amphoteric molecules and in solution exist mainly as ions
called Zwitter ions.
There exist 20 amino acids in nature.
 AMINO AC ID S
There are some amino acids which animals are unable to synthesize and
must therefore obtain these from Plants.

These amino acids are called Essential amino acids

Those that can be synthesized endogenously are called non-essential
amino acids

Some amino acids occur after they have been incorporated into a protein
and they have no DNA code for their synthesis.
These are known as Rare amino acids e.g hydroxyproline made from
proline found within collagen
PEPTID ES
When two or more amino acids combine, they form a peptide through a
condensation reaction since water is produced.
The bond between two amino acids is called a peptide bond and
the molecule formed is a dipeptide.
The peptide bonds are formed between a carboxyl group and an
amino group.
As a result, there is always a free carboxyl or amino end for further
combination with other peptides.
If many more amino acids combine with the dipeptide, it becomes a
polypeptide.
 PR OTEINS
These are the most abundant molecules found in the cell and form over 50% of
the total dry mass.
They are essential components of the diet and can be converted to both fat and
carbohydrates by the cell.
Their diversity plays a key role in the structural and metabolic activities within the
organism.
They are constituted of over 100 or more amino acid residues.
Proteins all have a 3-D conformation and based on this conformation, we have 4
levels of organization:
 PR OTEINS
Primary Structure: Long amino acid sequence linked by a peptide bonds and
disulphide bridges. It is a protein at its most basic level

Secondary structure: Two types exist-

a.) The α-helix, where in the entire structure is in the shape of an extended spiral ring held
by hydrogen bonds formed between neighboring CO and NH groups.
b.) The β-pleated sheet, wherein polypeptide chains are arranged in a parallel fashion either
running in the same or opposite directions with bonds between neighboring C=O and NH groups.

Tertiary Structure: Here, the polypeptide groups form 3-dimensional web

linkages, forming a globular shaped kind of protein.
Quaternary Structure: Here the different polypeptide chains are held together by
more complex hydrophobic, hydrogen and ionic bonds.
• Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids in a

protein, is like the order of letters in a long word

• Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic
information
Figure 5.20b

Secondary Tertiary Quaternary

structure structure structure

 helix

Hydrogen bond
 pleated sheet
 strand
Transthyretin
Hydrogen Transthyretin protein
bond polypeptide
PR OTEINS
Based on their structure, proteins can be classified as
A. Globular: Very stable tertiary structure, soluble in water and spherical in
shape. Commonly seen in antibodies and hormones
B. Fibrous: Secondary structure most important (tertiary usually absent).
Physically tough, insoluble and usually performs structural roles in the
organism such as hair, nails, myosin etc
Proteins can become denatured when their 3-D conformation is lost due to
several factors such as heat, radiation, redox reactions or reacting with
heavy metals.
If the primary structure remains unaffected, however, it can be renatured
provided it is maintained in good conditions.
 NUC LEIC AC ID S
These are the molecules essential for the formation of genetic material.
They are termed nucleic because they are found in the nucleus and represent one
of the many milestones in biology, because it solves the problem of how living
organisms store information and pass it on across generations.
The basic units of nucleic material are nucleotides.
Nucleotides are made from the association of a pentose sugar (ribose), a
phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. (a sugar together with a base is called a
Nucleoside)
 Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines

Cytosine Thymine Uracil

(C) (T, in DNA) (U, in RNA)
Sugars
Purines

Deoxyribose Ribose
Adenine (A) Guanine (G) (in DNA) (in RNA)

(c) Nucleoside components

37
 NUC LEIC AC ID S
Two types of nitrogenous bases exist :- Purine bases (adenine and guanine) and the
pyrimidine bases ( uracil, thymine and cytosine)
Each nucleic acid must
contain two purine bases
and two pyrimidine bases.
DNA has thymine and
cytosine while in RNA, uracil
replaces Thymine
 Multiple condensation reactions lead to the
formation of a polynucleotide
 DNA is a double helix structure made of two
polynucleotide strands that run anti-parallel to
each other, linked through hydrogen bonds formed
by base pairs (A-T and G-C).
 The A-T pair is a double bond while the G-C pair is
triple bonded.
 The alteration in the different base pairs forms the
basis of variation in genetic information.
 Note:The sugar present in DNA lacks one O-group,
thus the name deoxyribose
 STR UC TUR E OF R NA
RNA is single stranded and serves as genetic material for lower organisms such as
viruses and some archaea bacteria.
Types of RNA include:
Messenger RNA (mRNA): It transports genetic information (amino acids) from the
nucleus to the ribosome in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): it transports the amino acids into the cytoplasm for the
synthesis of proteins;
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): It reads the message and transforms it into proteins.
FUNC TIONS OF NUC LEIC AC ID S
1. Storage of genetic material necessary for proper functioning within the cell
2. Transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next
3. Permits biological evolution of a species by altering its constitution in times
of adversity
 OTHER NUC LEOTID ES
1. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
This is an energy rich molecule used in the body during metabolism.
It is formed by combining the nucleoside adenosine with 3 phosphate groups on
the sugar through a phosphoanhydride bond.
The groups are termed respectively in ascending order α,β, and γ groups with the 3rd
group being the richest in energy.
Hydrolysis of this bond leads to the production of ADP (adenosine diphosphate), water
and a phosphate group.
It is associated with all metabolic reactions in the body involving energy and it is
constantly recycled from its end-products/precursors.
It is important during activities such as synthesis, active transport, cell signaling
and locomotion
OTHER NUC LEOTID ES
The other nucleotides are also known as coenzymes.
2. Cyclic AMP
3. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
4. Flavine adenine dinucleotide
Note: Most of these have as precursor ATP by transfer of a phosphate group unto
a kinase.
Part 2
PR OTEIN SYNTHESIS
• This is the process through which protein molecules are built up in the
cell from genetic material (information)
• This information is from the nucleus and comes in a form of a code
• This code is a sequence of nucleotide bases and has the following
properties:
1. The code is a triplet code
2. It is degenerate (there are more codons than amino acids)
3. It is punctuated (presence of start codons like AUG and stop codons
UGA,UAA, UAG
PR OTEIN SYNTHESIS
•It has three principal stages: Transcription, Activation and Translation
• RNA has a key role to play in protein synthesis because it is the medium of
DNA synthesis between the Nucleus and the cytoplasm
• All three forms of RNA come into play (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)
PR OTEIN SYNTHESIS
The DNA double helix unwinds and exposes the nucleotides on a
single strand
Complementary nucleotides from an mRNA pool pair up with those on the
exposed DNA strand
With the help of RNA-polymerase, these nucleotides link up together
and give rise to mRNA
This occurs within the nucleus
PR OTEIN SYNTHESIS
ACTIVATION
The mRNA moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm
With the help of ATP, the tRNA molecule is bound to amino acids
giving rise to aminoacyl-tRNA
 PR OTEIN SYNTHESIS
TRANSLATION
The mRNA binds to ribosomes becoming a polysome/polyribosome
The 1st mRNA codon initiates the chain formation by attracting an aminoacyl-tRNA
molecule
The second codon equally attracts an aminoacyl-tRNA molecule showing the
complementary anticodon
The ribosome holds all the RNAs in place for enzymes to link up adjacent amino
acids through peptide bonds
Once an amino acid has been added to the chain, the ribosome moves one codon
along the mRNA
The tRNA molecule leaves the cell
Reading continues until an end codon is encountered.
55
BIBLIOGRAPHY

• BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE, EDITION 3

• LIPPINCOTT’S BIOCHEMISTRY
• CAMPBELL BIOLOGY EDITION 4
MIA MEDICAL SCHOOL SECRETS
THANK YOU