Plant & Animal Kingdom

Human Physiology
Common Disease

Abdul Sami Dahri

Content

• Kingdom Plantae
• Major Groups
• Animal Kingdom
• Animal Diversity
• Human Physiology
• Common Diseases
• Biofuel
 Enzymes
• Definition:
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to proceed.
• Enzymes are typically proteins with specific three-dimensional shapes that enable them to bind to substrates and catalyze specific reactions.
Mechanism of Action:
• Enzymes bind to their substrate(s) at the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
• The enzyme catalyzes the conversion of substrates into products by facilitating the formation of transition states, stabilizing intermediates, or altering the reaction
pathway.
• Enzymes remain unchanged after the reaction and can catalyze multiple rounds of substrate conversion.

• Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:

• Temperature: Enzyme activity typically increases with temperature until reaching an optimal temperature, beyond which denaturation occurs.
• pH: Enzymes have optimal pH ranges at which they exhibit maximum activity; deviations from this pH range can affect enzyme structure and function.
• Substrate Concentration: Increasing substrate concentration initially increases the rate of reaction until reaching saturation, where all enzyme active sites are occupied.
• Examples:
• Amylase: Catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch into maltose and glucose.
• Catalase: Catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
• DNA Polymerase: Catalyzes the synthesis of new DNA strands during DNA replication
Kingdom Plantae
• The kingdom Metaphyta or the plant kingdom in its true sense
includes all the eukaryotic, multicellular photosynthetic plants found
in this biosphere It consists of two major groups bryophytes and
tracheophytes possess an embryo stage and hence, collectively
describe under Embryophyte. Tracheophytes include the
pteridophytes, Gymnosperm and angiosperm.

• Following are the major groups of plant under kingdom Plantae

 Plants
(Embryophytes)

Tracheophytes Bryophytes
(Vascular Plants) (Non-Vascular)

Pteridophytes Spermatophytes
(Non-Seed Forming) (Seed Forming)
Monocots

Gymnosperms Angiosperm

Dicots
Bryophytes (Mosses)
• Bryophytes are a group of simple and primitive plants. In their level of
organization, the bryophytes lie between the green algae and higher vascular
plants.
• Bryophytes have body like a thallus i.e. have no true roots, stem, and leaves.
• They grow in moist and shady places forming a dense mass or mat on damp soil,
rock, logs, and other substrata.
• They are basically terrestrial forms but require the presence of water for
completing the life cycle. Hence, they are commonly described as 'amphibians of
the plant kingdom.
• Bryophytes are nonvascular embryo-bearing plants.
• Bryophytes are multicellular photosynthetic plants.
• The division Bryophytes has been divided into three classes namely.
• Hepaticae - Commonly called Liverworts.
• Anthocerotae - Commonly called Hornworts.
• Musci - Commonly called Mosses.
 Tracheophytes
(Vascular Plants)
• Tracheophytes include the true land plants or vascular

plants. The adult plant body is a sporophyte and shows

definite root, stem and leaves. Vascular tissues xylem and

phloem are. present for the translocation of water and food

respectively. Tracheophytes include these major groups of

plants, namely:

• Pteridophyta: Vascular Plants which do not produce seeds

• Spermatophytes: Vascular plants which produce seeds

 Pteridophytes (Non
seed Plants)
•The division pteridophytes includes a group of primitive

vascular plants, commonly called pteridophytes or Ferns.

• The adult plant body in these plants is a sporophyte.

• Plant body shows differentiation into true roots, stem and

leaves.

• The stem is mostly herbaceous. Leaves may be smaller or

larger.

• Vascular tissues are present in all the vegetative parts of

the plant body.

• Pteridophytes have no flowers and do not produce seeds

•Spermatophytes (Seed-bearing Plants)
•A large division (Spermatophyta) that comprises the plants
bearing seeds, including the gymnosperms and angiosperms.
•Gymnosperms (Naked-seed Plants)
•Gymnosperm is common name for any seed-bearing vascular
plant without flowers. There are several types: the cycad, ginkgo,
conifer .
•Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)
•Angiosperms represent the most advanced group of vascular
plants. They are commonly. called Flowering plants. They exceed
all other major groups of living plants in number and diversity.
Members of the group are the source of most of the food on
which humans and other mammals rely and of many raw
materials and natural products.
 Gymnosperm (Naked Seed Plant) Angiosperm (Flowering Plants)

Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants. Angiosperms are flowering plants

Seeds are not enclosed inside fruits (naked) Seeds are enclosed inside fruits

Leaves are needle shaped Leaves are broad

Mainly found in hilly areas and cold regions Almost found in every kind of environment

Gymnosperm produce cones Angiosperms do not produce cones

Angiosperms produce hardwood that is used to. Make furniture

Gymnosperms produce softwood that is used in furniture
and agricultural implements

Examples are all flowering and fruit producing plants e.g. Rose,
Examples are conifers (chir, Pinus, juniper, deodar, etc)
Mango, Wheat etc.
Monocots & dicots. Dicot Monocot

Embryo has two cotyledons Embryo has one cotyledon

• Angiosperms are divided into Dicots have broad leaves Monocots have long narrow leaves

two natural groups called Flower has petals multiples of four or five Flower has petals multiples of three

monocotyledons or monocots
and dicotyledons or dicots. Leaf veins are reticulated (form
network).
Leaf veins are parallel.

Legumes (pea, beans, lentils, peanuts), Grains (wheat, corn, rice, millet), lilies,
daisies, mint, grass, lettuce, tomato, oak sugarcane, banana, ginger, onions,
tree, etc. Are dicots bamboo,
etc. are monocots.
ANIMAL KINGDOM
The animal kingdom includes eukaryotic
multicellular organisms which exhibit
heterotrophic nutrition. They are
commonly known as animals and differ
characteristically from the other major
groups of plants, in their capacity to be
able to move. Animals contribute to
about a million living species that occur
in all types of habitats. Animals exhibit a
great deal of variation. in their form,
size, and lifestyles.
Animal Diversity
•At present, there are 35 phylum of animal kingdom. And this number is swelling.

•However, there are 9 major phyla as described below.

1. Porifera (sponges)
2. Cnidaria/Coelentrata (jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones and corals)
3. Platyhelminthes (flatworms including planaria, flukes and tapeworms)
4. Nematoda (roundworms)
5. Mollusca (mollusks including bivalves, snails and slugs and octopuses and squids)
6. Annelida (segmented worms including earthworms, leeches and marine worms)
7. Echinodermata (sea stars, sea cucumbers, sand dollars and sea urchins)
8. Arthropods (arachnids, crustaceans, millipedes, centipedes and insects)
9. Chordata (animals with nerve chords, this group includes the vertebrates)
VERTEBRATES & INVERTEBRATES

Almost all animals discussed above fall into one of two groups or
categories namely vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates have a
spinal column, or backbone, running the length of the body which the
invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are often larger and have more
complex bodies than invertebrates. However, there are many more
invertebrates than vertebrates. A comparison of vertebrates and
invertebrates is as under
 Invertebrate
Animals without a backbone or vertebral
column is called invertebrates
Examples are insects, flatworms, etc.
Invertebrates have less developed internal
skeleton and brain.
According to the latest research, these are
classified into 34 phyla
Invertebrates are larger in number
Invertebrates are slow-moving organisms
Vertebrate
Animals with vertebral column are called vertebrates.
Examples are parrots, humans, snakes etc
Vertebrates have well-developed internal. skeleton and
highly developed brain
Vertebrates are classified under chordates and divided
into five classes: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.
Vertebrates are smaller in number as compared to
invertebrates
Vertebrates are fast moving organisms
Human Physiology
•Skeletal System:

 The skeletal system provides structural support, protects internal organs, facilitates movement, stores
minerals (such as calcium and phosphorus), and produces blood cells.

 It consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.

 Bones are dynamic tissues that undergo growth, remodelling, and repair throughout life.

 The skeletal system is essential for maintaining posture, enabling locomotion, and protecting vital organs
such as the brain, heart, and lungs.
Muscular System:
 The muscular system is responsible for movement, stability, posture, and generating heat.

 It comprises three types of muscle tissue: skeletal (voluntary muscles attached to bones for movement),
smooth (involuntary muscles found in internal organs), and cardiac (involuntary muscles of the heart).

 Muscles contract and relax in response to nerve impulses, enabling voluntary and involuntary
movements.
Nervous System:
 The nervous system coordinates body activities by detecting and responding to internal and external
stimuli.

 It includes the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS), comprising nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.

 Neurons (nerve cells) transmit electrochemical signals, enabling communication and coordination
between different parts of the body.

 The nervous system regulates various functions, including sensory perception, motor control, cognition,
and emotion.
Circulatory System:
 The circulatory system transports blood, nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and waste products throughout the
body.

 It consists of the heart (a muscular pump), blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood (a fluid
connective tissue).

 Blood carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the heart
for reoxygenation.

 The circulatory system plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, regulating body temperature, and
defending against pathogens.
Respiratory System:
 The respiratory system facilitates gas exchange between the body and the environment, supplying oxygen
to cells and removing carbon dioxide.

 It includes the respiratory tract (nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs) and respiratory
muscles (diaphragm and intercostal muscles).

 Inhalation brings air rich in oxygen into the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream and
carbon dioxide diffuses out during exhalation.

 The respiratory system also helps regulate acid-base balance by controlling carbon dioxide levels in the
blood.
Digestive System:
 The digestive system processes food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste products from the body.

 It comprises the digestive tract (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) and
accessory organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas).

 Digestion involves mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules that can be
absorbed by the body.

 Nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine and transported to cells for energy production, growth, and
repair.
Excretory System:
 The excretory system removes metabolic wastes and maintains fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

 It includes the kidneys (filtering blood and producing urine), ureters (transporting urine to the bladder),
bladder (storing urine), and urethra (eliminating urine from the body).

 The kidneys filter waste products, excess ions, and water from the blood, regulating blood pressure,
electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance.

 Urine contains nitrogenous wastes (urea, creatinine), excess salts, and water, which are eliminated from
the body through urination.
Endocrine System:
 The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through the secretion of hormones by glands.

 Hormones are chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream to target cells, where they elicit
specific responses.

 Major endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads
(testes and ovaries).

 Hormones control various processes, including metabolism, growth and development, reproduction,
stress response, and immune function.
Reproductive System:
 The reproductive system produces gametes (sperm and eggs) and facilitates sexual reproduction.

 It includes primary reproductive organs (testes in males, ovaries in females) and accessory reproductive
structures (penis, scrotum, uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina).

 In males, the testes produce sperm and secrete testosterone, while in females, the ovaries produce eggs
and secrete estrogen and progesterone.

 The reproductive system is essential for the perpetuation of species and plays roles in sexual
differentiation, fertility, and reproductive health.
 Malaria:
 A life-threatening disease caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bite of infected
Anopheles mosquitoes.
 Prevention: Use of insect repellents, mosquito nets, insecticide-treated bed nets, antimalarial
medications (prophylaxis), and vector control measures.
Hepatitis:
• Inflammation of the liver caused by viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E) or other factors

Common
(alcohol, drugs, autoimmune disorders).
•Prevention: Vaccination (for hepatitis A and B), practicing good hygiene, safe food and water
handling, avoiding risky behaviors (intravenous drug use, unprotected sex), and screening blood

Diseases and
products.
 Dengue:
 A viral infection transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, causing fever, headache, muscle and joint pain,

Preventive 
and potentially severe complications (dengue haemorrhagic fever, dengue shock syndrome).
Prevention: Mosquito control measures (eliminating breeding sites, using insect repellents,
wearing protective clothing), avoiding mosquito bites, and community-based interventions.

Measures:  Diarrheal:
 Passage of loose or watery stools, often caused by infections (bacteria, viruses, parasites),
contaminated food or water, medications, or underlying medical conditions.
 Prevention: Practicing good hygiene (handwashing, safe food and water handling), ensuring
access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, vaccination (rotavirus vaccine), and oral
rehydration therapy.
 AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome):
A chronic, potentially life-threatening condition caused by HIV infection, leading to progressive
immune system failure and susceptibility to opportunistic infections and cancers.
Prevention: Practicing safe sex (use of condoms), using sterile needles for injection drug use, pre-
exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for high-risk individuals, antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV-positive
individuals, and education and awareness campaigns.
 New Model Concept of Producing Biofuel
Methods
Biofuels, derived from organic materials, offer a promising

alternative to traditional fossil fuels, mitigating environmental

impacts and reducing dependency on finite resources. Here are

key advancements in biofuel production methods

 Algae Biofuel:

•Algae, highly efficient in converting

sunlight and CO2 into energy, is a
promising source for biofuel production.

•Novel cultivation methods such as open

ponds, photobioreactors, and closed
systems optimize growth conditions.

•Advances in genetic engineering

enhance algae strains for higher lipid
content, crucial for biofuel extraction.
 Cellulosic Biofuels:
•Utilize non-food biomass like
agricultural residues, grasses, and
forestry waste.
•Enzymatic hydrolysis and
thermochemical processes break down
cellulose into fermentable sugars.
•Integrated biorefineries enhance
efficiency by co-producing valuable by-
products alongside biofuels.
Synthetic Biology:
•Engineering microbes like
bacteria and yeast to directly
produce biofuels from simple
feedstocks.
•Pathway optimization and
metabolic engineering improve
yield and productivity.
•Tailoring microorganisms for
specific environments and
substrates enhances scalability and
viability.
Waste-to-Energy:
•Conversion of organic waste
streams, such as municipal solid
waste and sewage sludge, into
biofuels.
•Pyrolysis, gasification, and
anaerobic digestion are common
conversion technologies.
•Circular economy principles
promote resource efficiency and
waste reduction.
 Hydrothermal
Liquefaction (HTL):

•Converts wet biomass into bio-oil

under high temperature and
pressure in the presence of a
solvent.

•Suitable for a wide range of

feedstocks including algae,
agricultural residues, and
wastewater sludge.

•Provides a pathway for

decentralized biofuel production
using locally available resources.