ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT
CIE 4303
PERSPECTIVE OF ENVIRONMENT

An exclusively ‘green’ perspective

An inclusive ‘green’ perspective with social, cultural and economic issues

It considers Human factor as an integral and indispensable part of earth, and social
issues (brown’s capital) as the non-separated event.

2
 Source: EPA

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A process concerned with human-environment interactions, which seeks to identify what is
environmentally desirable, what are the physical, economic, social and technological
constraints to achieving it; and what are the feasible options (Barrow 2005)
3
EMS FRAMEWORK

Commitment and Policy:

 establishes organization policies, a fundamental step of EMS for improvement
Planning
 Identification of environmental aspects (negative)
 Setting of objectives and targets
 Framing of action plan outlining steps, responsibilities and schedule

YOUR COMPANY NAME 4

Implementation
 Includes stages of using resources for components such as training,
documentation procedure, operating procedures, and establishment of
communication lines
Evaluation
 Evaluation of objectives, or targets and implementation of corrective action.
Review
 Review on the policy done, and scope of improvement for higher effectiveness

5
SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

6
ROLE OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGERS

Sustainable development ;
Environmental & Social Problems;
Decision Making;

Environmental Managers include professional bodies involved in EM like:

(a) Governmental Agencies like Environmental Protection Agency, European Environmental Agency
(b) International bodies and Aid Organizations like FAO, UNEP, World Bank, UNDP, etc
(c) Research Institutes like Worldwatch Institute, IIED etc.
(d) NGOs like WWF, IUCN, Friends of the Earth etc.
(e) Public

7
 Sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. (Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987))

 The limitation of above definition excludes the principal aspects of sustainability in ecological,
economic and social equity where ecological and social equity are the most important
 Environment protection should not freeze ecosystem but allow natural processes to occur within
non-destructive or reversible damages and pre-human rates
 Ecological sustainability stems from the notion that both economy and the human society depends
on the environment and the life forming processes occurring in it.
 Social equity corresponds to equal opportunity achieving human sustainability
** WCED : World Commission on Environment and Development 8
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

9
PARAMETERS AFFECTING ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT

1. Population

 Over population could lead to Malthusian disaster (higher demand of primary production
due to population growth) yet population density leading alone to environmental
degradation is controversial

 Hardin’s tragedy of commons in common property use was one such issue raised

 Developing & emerging countries like India & China having much higher population density
has higher consumption needs than developed countries creating stress on environment

10
2. Energy Efficiency

 Contribution of natural gas to energy management

 Fuel cells
 Biomass energy
 Photo voltaic power

 Bonn Challenge to restore forest landscapes to boost ecological and human health
 Paris Agreement to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to limit increase
beyond 2⁰C and limit beyond 1.5⁰C

11
3. Economy

 Poverty
 Human settlement Issues
 Land Resources
 Forests
 Mountains
 Sustainable agriculture
 Biodiversity
 Protection of oceans
 Business & Industry
12
4. Ecological Deficit

 Rehabilitation and Restorative Programs

 Village and Community Involvement
 Implementation of legislative acts, rules and policies on business
environment

Extraction of natural resources especially the non-renewable resources

more than it can be replenished is known as ecological deficit

13
ENVIRONMENTAL DILEMMAS

1. Ethical: (what to conserve? - Inuit hunters or whales)

2. Efficiency: (acceptable damage to environment)
3. Equity Dilemmas: (deciding on factors as to who benefits and who
pays)
4. Liberty Dilemmas: (restriction on humans to protect environment)
5. Uncertainty Dilemma: (action in course of insufficient knowledge or
data)
6. Evaluation Dilemma: (comparison of the effects of options) 14
PARTICIPANTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

1. Existing users (Land/ Resource Users both Male and Female)

2. Groups seeking change (Government; commerce (MNC/TNC); utopian association;
NGOs; individuals seeking change)
3. Groups pressed into making changes (poor; eco-refugees; migrants; workers in
mining and industries)
4. Public (indirect participant)
5. Facilitators (Funding agencies, planners, workers etc.)
6. Controllers (Government and international agencies; academicians; environmental
manager; NGOs; planners; consumer protection bodies etc.) 15
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Study of ethical questions raised by human relationship with non-human

environment

Answers:
 Ethical Questions
 Prescriptive Ethical Claims vs Descriptive or Predictive Claims
• Reduction of ecological impacts of lifestyle
• Normative & aspirational claims describing the behaviour, practices and characteristics for valuation
of things in non-human environment to propagate principles, actions, and laws.
• Eg., endangered species protection ; sustainable resource management; genetically modified crop

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Intrinsic Value :The non-human definition of value

o The intrinsic value of “thing” in nature is dependent on –

a) Value added benefits (eg., ecosystem services; recreational opportunities)

b) Metaphysical values (health; structure; self-sufficiency)

c) Lexical priorities of its value over other values (values regarded based on respect rather than
on usefulness)

o Intrinsic value as moral status is the threshold concept taken into account for decision
making (adds comparative judgement of moral weight to things that actually has values;
and with its implication on human relations and behaviour)
17
 HUMAN VALUE IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Anthropocentrism: Human-centred attitude to the intrinsic values and moral status of nature

Strong
Anthropo Lynn White Jr. attested the claim of human as separate from and
centrism superior to nature in his paper as being the roots for ecological
crisis
• The first environmentalist who connected environmental
crisis to anthropocentrism

Resulted in a radical environmental movement of the concept of “Deep Ecology” in

early ‘70s

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 DEEP ECOLOGY
The concept holds that humans like all other species are what they are only in connection
to the natural environment, and that there is no division between the human and non-
human realms

Deep Ecology Platforms:

1. Well being and flourishing of human and non-human life
2. Biodiversity as in richness and population
3. Policies to affect human interferences
4. Life quality over standards of living
5. Flourishing of human life and culture is compatible with decrease in human life

19
NON-HUMAN VALUES

1. Ethics and Sentient Animals/Sentient Theory: Singer’s utilitarianism concept argues that
beings who can experience suffering and pleasure have morally relevant interests and
that where beings have similar interests, irrespective of species, these interests should be
taken equally into account
2. Ethical Biocentrism: An egalitarian approach that respects life with focus on any and all
living beings
3. Holistic Ethic –Ecocentrism: A concept where moral focus isn’t individualistic rather
based on ecological collectives such as ecosystem, lands etc.,
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 CASE STUDY of ECOCENTRISM: LAND ETHICS of ADO LEOPOLD
o The land ethics simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, water,
plants and animals, or collectively the land - a moral sphere outward from the human
community to include the biotic community

o Leopold also defends a land ethic in which “ a thing is right when it tends to preserve the
integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends
otherwise.”

PROBLEMS IN LEOPOLD VIEW:

1. Conflict between individuals and the land was not considered

2. The preferential debate on whether ecological community as having interest of their own, or provide interests for
human preferences
3. Hierarchy of ecological organization is categorized topographically ( trophic hierarchy; nutrient budget; energy law), or
by ecosystem (communities; biome; ecotopy)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgoOTtDkhdU&list=PPSV
21
ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND SUSTAINABILITY

US EPA Definition

“ The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of people

regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to
the development, implementation, and enforcement of
environmental laws, regulation, and policies.”

22
Environmental justice and sustainability can be divided into two issues:

A. Distributive justice issues

It is the allocation of burdens and benefits in societies
eg. Environmental Hazards is an important environmental burden – per research human category
exposed to such conditions mainly belong to low-income, high minority or marginalized communities.
Others may include climatic justice, and justice relationship to nonhuman environmental entities such
as species and ecological system

B. Participative justice issues

The involvement of those affected by decisions in making the decisions
This requires meaningful participation else those adversely affected by policies, institutional changes,
or choices about environment will have no authority to voice out their opinion.
23
THE CONCERNS ON JUSTICE

1. Restriction on indigenous people

eg., creation of parks and reserves restricting such communities from accessing
historical lands and resources; bioprospecting using indigenous knowledge

2. In context of our common future

i.e., meeting needs of present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
(David H. Lucas , Petitioner v. South Carolina Coastal Council (‘92))

24
 CONTD..

3. In context of debt-for-nature swaps

Here, the debt from a country can be forgiven for implementation of work towards
benefiting environment, climate change, and sustainable ecosystem which benefits
everyone.
Case Study: Seychelles Blue Bond Framework

 Blue Bond Plan (2018) supports sustainable marine fisheries & fishery products. The expansion of marine protected
areas (MPAs) and secure of grants and loans through the Blue Grant Fund & Blue Investment .
 Critical pillars of the framework is “ Economic diversification and resilience”.
 Conversion of US$21.6 million of debt for nature per Sustainable Development Goal 14
 Future roadmap or visions – financing for adoption to climate change through management of coasts or coral reefs
and mangroves; creation of marine spatial plan and etc;
25
Pesticides & Insecticide, Chemical
Rampant Unregulated Use

26
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ezVEzCmiXM4&list=PPSV
27
Environmental Policies & Indian Outlook

Silent Spring Effect on  Rachel Carson book “Silent Spring” on the use of pesticide was
Chemical Use published in year 1962
 During tenure of John F. Kennedy, it was investigated and report
was published in 1962
 Revision in regulation of the chemicals was done
 Environmental Protection Agency came into existence in 1970 to
set tolerances for chemical residue
 Toxic Substances Control Act 1976 directed EPA to ban/restrict use
of DDT, chlordane, heptachlor, dieldrin, aldrin, and eldrin

https://www.environmentandsociety.org/exhibitions/rachel-carsons-silent-spring/us-federal-government-
responds
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29
 International efforts for environment protection
 United Nation’s Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm 1972

• The principles an action plan were evolved for controlling and regulating human
environment
• Institutional and financial arrangements were proposed for achieving the goal for
regulating human environment, also known as Magna Carta on Environment
• Humans have the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions
of life in an environment of quality that permits a life of dignity and well being
• Human beings have responsibility to protect and improve the environment for
present and future generations

30
 U.N. Habitat Conference on Human Settlements, Vancouver, Canada, 1976
 World Water Conference, Mardel Plata, Argentina, 1977
Goal to provide clean drinking water and sanitation to all
 U.N. Desertification Conference, Nairobi, 1977
 Paris Conference, 1986
For saving trees and forests attended by members from 36 countries
 Brundtland Commission or World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) 1985
Named after the Chairman, the PM of Norway G. Harlem Brundland
The commission published its first report “Our Common Future” in 1987 based on sustainable development

31
Earth Summit, Rio de Janerio 1992
• Agenda 21 (containing comprehensive blueprint for governments on everything from
population strategy, management of hazardous wastes, recycling, energy conservation,
renewable energy, business strategies to role of women in environment) was issued in
this conference

“that hunger and poverty are both a cause and an effect of environmental
degradation…Industrial countries continue to be addicted to the patterns of
production and consumption which have so largely produced the major risk to the
global environment.”

 Kyoto Protocol, 1997 United Nations Framework

Convention of Climate Change
 Paris Agreement, 2015

32
33
34
Carbon Emission between the Convention Parties “Annex 1 Parties (industrialized countries of
OECD, and ‘economies in transition” and Non-Annex 1 Parties (most developing countries)

Kyoto Protocol Mechanism

 Emission trading – also

known as the “carbon
market”
 Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM)
 Joint Implementation (JI)

35
INFLUENCE OF STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE ON INDIA

• Amendment of Constitutional Framework in 1976 to include “Environment Protection”

 Article 48A “ The State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the
forest and wildlife of the country.”
 Article 51A “ It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for all living
creatures.”

36
• Tiwari Committee on Environment, 1980

 Comprehensive reviews and reformation of some Central and State Acts (such as Insecticides Act,
1968; Water(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; India Forest Act, 1972;)
 New legislation for areas of action not covered by the present laws (such as toxic substances)
 Introduction of “Environment Protection: in the Concurrent List of the Seventh Schedule

 To act as nodal agency for environmental protection and eco-development in the

country
Department of
 To carry out environmental appraisal of development projects through other
Environment, 1980 ministries/agencies as well as directly
 To have administrative responsibility for:
a) Pollution monitoring and regulation
b) Conservation of critical eco-systems designated as Biosphere Reserves
c) Conservation of marine eco-system

37
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT, 1986

It was passed for the protection of environment, regulation of discharge of pollutants,

handling of hazardous substances, speedy response in the event of accidents threatening
environment and deterrent punishment to those who endanger human environment,
safety and health

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SPECIFIC DIRECTION TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT

o Afforestation:
o The national afforestation and eco-development board was set up
o Under this board in 1993, two million hectares land was brought under afforestation
o Implementation of eco-task force to work on degraded areas per Agenda 21.

o Regulation for Polluting Industries

o MoEF identified 17 industries and asked to install pollution control equipment or face
punitive action

o Public Liability Insurance Act 1991, 1992 and Environment Relief Fund
o (Oleum Gas Leak gas in Delhi) To provide immediate relief to persons affected by
accident occurring while handling any hazardous substances

39
o Water Cess Act, 1977, 1991
o The increase in the cess of the industries which consumes excess water for
discharge of effluents which are in access of standards has been stipulated.

o Vehicle Exhaust
o From lead free petrol to use of CNG

o Project Tiger, 1972

o The 1993 report showed an increase in numbers from 268 to 1327 tigers in 79
reserve. As of 2022 (source ENVIS), there are 53 reserves.

40
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
“Environmental policy is essentially concerned with how best to govern the relationship between humans
and the natural environment for their mutual benefit.”

• Due to conceptual ambiguity, definition of environmental policy is limited to its association with
controlling pollution, limiting natural habitat loss, managing waste, and reducing the impact of natural
disaster.
• The other broader areas included are food production, energy, transport, human health and safety,
consumer choices, survival of biological species, and even international security.

41
 The 1969 US National Environmental Policy Act
Environmental “Magna Carta”
 President Theodore Roosevelt called for foresight in respect to pollution control during
his 1908 Conference on Conservation, but it was not until 1969 that effective legislation
was enacted. Preparations leading to the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
began in the early 1960s, when the need was perceived for the USA to have a declaration
of national environmental policy and an action-forcing provision
 It was designed to reform federal policy making with the intent to influence the private
sector—the hope being to transform and reorientate values
 NEPA required an EIA prior to approval of federally funded projects that ‘significantly’
affected the environment—a message to federal officials to ‘look before they leap’
42
 PUBLIC POLICY

“Public policy is a specific course of action taken collectively for specific problems of public concern that reflect
interest of society or a particular segment of society”.
• It helps to integrate the social, economic and environmental matters at policy making to achieve sustainable
development.
• It is achieved by direct, or indirect participation of citizens.
• In India, the policies are formulated either through (a) legislations (elected bodies like parliament or State
Assemblies); ordinances issued by President of India, and decisions handed down by the Supreme Court or
High Courts
• In India, introduction of environmental litigation as fundamental right of citizens by the courts was a
significant step. Also, The introduction of Public Litigation Act in India by the Supreme Court (Municipality vs.
Supreme Court) 43
44
 NEW TOOLS OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
1. ECOLABELS: These labels give the information of the environmental impact of the
processes of a product to the purchasers as well as the investors. A degree to measure eco-
friendliness of products to the consumers.
India’s Ecolabel- “Eco Mark” by Indian Bureau of Standard (1991)

CRITERIAS FOR A PRODUCT

https://cpcb.nic.in/ecomark-criteria/ 45
The first
ecolabel

This is a way of influencing the behaviour of consumers, helping them identify the
environmental impacts of products, and encourages manufacturers to reduce these
impacts. Eco-labelling assesses environmental impact and communicates this to the
consumer or middle merchant. The focus is on the product and often nothing is said
about the process of production or distribution. So, an ‘environmentally friendly’ product
may come from a factory which causes pollution, or present a disposal problem after use.
There is also a need for standardization and policing of eco-labelling
46
2. ECO-TAX REFORM: The penalities on economic “bad” and reward of “goods, eg. Labor)”
through hypothecation.
Eg., In India, India Clean Environment Cess or coal cess acts as a carbon tax and is
penalized by Rs. 400 per tonne

India: Clean energy cess-tax on coal Industry - ICSC (sustainable-carbon.org) 49

3. INTEGRATED PRODUCT POLICIES: To encourage green capital, i.e., use of various devices
to “green” from design to production and lastly to final disposal of the product.
Eg., EUs Packaging & Packaging waste directive

50
4. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT: The aim being integration of environmental policies,
and in recent time involves the strategic assessment of higher level policies, plans and
programs. For eg., The US NEPA (1969) required assessment on the individual projects such
as power stations. In India, impact assessment in year 1978-79 was carried on the river
valley, currently it is backed by the Environment Protection Act for all developmental
projects.

5. STRICT LIABILITY REGIMES: By making developers legally responsible for remedying the
damage they cause, to encourage consistent preventative approach to environmental
issue. 51
ENVIRONMENTAL CARRYING CAPACITY

52
 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

An ecological footprint is the amount of biologically productive land and water needed
to supply the people in a particular country or area with resources, and to absorb and
recycle the wastes and pollution produced by such resource use. The per capita ecological
footprint is the average ecological footprint of an individual in a given country or area.

BIOLOGICAL ECOLOGICAL
CAPACITY DEFICIT
WHOSE ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT IS MORE?
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF WORLD

WHERE
ARE WE
FAILING?
ASSESSMENT OF ECC

Carbon Footprint
(CF)
Ecological Ecological
Indicators Footprint (EF)
ECC Assessment Areas Yield Factors (YF)
Biocapacity (BC)
Equivalence
Factors (EQF)

56
57
STUDY AREA - UTTARA KANNADA DISTRICT, KARNATAKA STATE,
INDIA

 Uttara Kannada district is bounded between 13.769˚ to 15.732 ˚ north and

74.124˚ to 75.169˚ east.

 Total Area of 10,291 sq km, which is 5.37% of the total area of the State.

 Most of the district is hilly and thickly wooded. The area of the district is
10,222.3 sq km and has 11 taluks
60
 LAND-USE CHANGES

 Land use (LU) dynamics is a major concern, as the abrupt changes have a negative impact
on ecology, climate, regional hydrology, and also people’s livelihood in the region.

 LU dynamics are specific to a region and vary from region to region.

 Land use refers to use of the land surface through modifications by humans and natural
phenomena.

 Land use can be classified into various classes such as water bodies, built up, forests,
agriculture, open lands, sand, soil, etc.
Land modification includes

i) conversion of forest lands, scrublands to agricultural fields

ii) cultivation lands to built-up,

iii) construction of storage structures for water bodies

(Leads to land submergence from small to large scale)

 OBJECTIVE OF THE SPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF LAND USE

1. Assessment of the spatial pattern of LU changes in Uttara Kannada district, Central

western Ghats in Karnataka.

2. Quantification of the spatial data acquired through Remote sensing and collateral
data ( field data, surbey of India topographic maps, Google Earth Data ) through
Geographic Information System in understanding the landscape dynamics.
 OBSERVATIONS

1. Vegetation cover (land cover) assessment was done by computing Normalised Difference
Vegetation Index (NDVI) show the decline of vegetation cover from 92.87% (1973) to 83.44% (in
2013).
2. Land use analysis reveal distressing trend of deforestation in the district, evident from the
reduction of evergreen-semi evergreen forest cover from 67.73% (1973) to 32.08% (2013).
3. Taluk-wise analysis reveal similar trend for evergreen - semi evergreen forest cover during 1973 to
2013; Ankola (75.66 to 55.33%), Bhatkal (61.37 to 30.38%), Honnavar (70.63 to 35.71%), Karwar
(72.26 to 59.70%), Kumta(62.89 to 29.38%), Siddapur (71.42 to 23.68), Sirsi (64.89 to 16.78), Supa
(93.56 to 58.55%), Yellapur (75.28 to 18.98%), Haliyal (35.45 to 2.59%), Mundgod (20.63 to 1.52)
64
65
 Loss /
Year Gain in
1973 1979 1989 1999 2010 2013
area (1973-
Category 2013)
Ha % Ha % Ha % Ha % Ha % Ha % (Ha)
Built-up 3886 0.38 9738 0.95 12,982 1.26 21,635 2.10 28,491 2.77 31589 3.07 27703
Water 7,681 0.75 18527 1.80 16,604 1.61 32,983 3.21 26,119 2.54 28113 2.73 20432
Crop land 71,990 7.00 103163 10.02 121,167 11.77 138,458 13.45 148,187 14.40 145395 14.13 73405
Open fields 14071 1.37 15988 1.55 34,783 3.38 21,945 2.13 30,812 2.99 37660 3.66 23589
Moist deciduous 95,357 9.27 102967 10.01 143,849 13.98 179,075 17.40 166,266 16.15 161,996 15.74 66639
forest
Evergreen to semi 696,978 67.73 589762 57.31 531,872 51.68 423,062 41.11 367,064 35.66 330,204 32.08 -366774
evergreen
Scrub/grass 38,109 3.70 58936 5.73 44,123 4.29 47,366 4.60 35,158 3.42 40402 3.93 2293
Acacia/Eucalyptus/
hardwood 40,905 3.97 50321 4.89 55,694 5.41 73,977 7.19 119,717 11.63 122927 11.94 82022
plantations
Teak/ Bamboo/
softwood 13997 1.36 20896 2.03 21,937 2.13 38,588 3.75 44,794 4.35 67111 6.52 53114
plantations
Horticulture
plantations 20,702 2.01 29675 2.88 32,227 3.13 43,623 4.24 53,646 5.21 53,993 5.25 33291
Dry deciduous 25,410 2.47 29113 2.83 13,848 1.35 8374 0.81 9008 0.88 9873 0.96 -15537
forest
Total 1029086
66
CONCLUSION

Comparative assessment of land use categories reveals the decline of vegetation cover in
the district during 1973 to 2013. The reduction of area under evergreen forests from
67.73% (1973) to 32.09% (2013) due to anthropogenic activities involving the conversion
of forest land to agricultural and horticultural activities, monoculture plantations and land
releases for developmental projects

67
ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA

1. The Man and Biosphere Reserve Programme (MAB), 1988

2. Hazardous Waste Rules, 1989
3. Eco-mark scheme, 1991
4. Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
5. National Environmental Tribunal, 1995
6. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
7. Biomedical Waste Rules, 1998
8. The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
9. Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006

The UNESCO has introduced the designation ‘Biosphere Reserve’ for natural areas to minimize conflict between
development and conservation. 68
69
National Green Tribunal Act is a specialised judicial body equipped with expertise solely for the purpose of
adjucating environmental cases in the coutry.

Any person seeking relief and compensation for environmental damage involving subjects in the legislations mentioned
in Schedule I of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 may approach the Tribunal.

The statutes in Schedule I are:

1.The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;
2.The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977;
3.The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980;
4.The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981;
5.The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986;
6.The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991;
7.The Biological Diversity Act, 2002.

70
 NGO Movements for environmental protection in India

 Silent Valley Struggle: In the 1970s, led by Kerala Sastra Parishad, students and a galaxy
of intellectuals, academics, artists, and naturalists conducted nationwide movement
against a hydroelectric project that would have destroyed part of silent valley.

 Chipko Movement: A movement was born in March 1973 in the tiny hamlet of
Gopeshwar in the Garhwal region. The villagers were denied access to ash wood for their
agricultural implements. When the trees were allotted to a sports manufacturing
company, the villagers rushed to protect the trees by hugging them.

 Public Interest Litigation for the Protection of the Taj Mahal: A bench of supreme court
passed a number of orders directing the industries to install devices to control pollution
or else face closure, the Mathura Refinery to minimise sulphur dioxide emissions and the
Union Ministry of environment and forests to take suitable measures to save the Taj.
71
ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS
HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS: INITIAL RESISTANCE

In 1970 with rise in environmental pollution awareness, economists correlated

externalities to be cause of market failure
Remedial solution

Pollution w/o pricing of scarce resources being one of the externality and introduced
surrogate price in form of “unit taxes” or “effluent fees” under economization

Problem in execution

Federal Environmental Policy USA (Clean Water Act ‘72 & Clean Air Act ‘70) explicitly
prohibited weight of benefits against costs in setting environment standards
73
Economics Limitations of Earlier Policy

The Federal Environmental Policy directive to EPA was to set maximum limit on
pollution concentration in atmosphere to “protect public health” with also an
objective to eliminate the discharge of all pollutants into navigable water by ‘85

74
 Incorporation of Economics into Policies
 Increasing cost of environmental regulations initiated the weightage of benefit-cost into
environmental measures
 Toxic Substance Control Act, Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, & Rodenticide Act of USA
were first to implement cost-benefit weightage
 Clean Air Act in ‘77 amendment adopted it as ‘emission offsets’ which later evolved into
Emission Trading Program
 Under Bush administration trading of sulfur emissions was included in ‘90 amendment of
Clean Air Act.
 In ‘91 OECD urged member countries to “make a better and more consistent use of
economic instruments” for EM. The concept of green taxes, system of tradeable permits,
polluter pay was laid to contain emissions of GHGs 75
Case Study on
Greening of an
economy

76
ENVIRONMENT & ECONOMICS

• Required for development projects for its economic feasibility and financial viability

• Environmental economics can be broadly classified into: a) Macro-economics, and b) Micro-economics

Function of Macro-economics

 Involves large scale operations of the nation’s economy;

 collective group of nations dealing with issues such as production of goods & services, unemployment,
money supply & inflation, national debt & balance of payments

 Comparison of different economics to gauge progress of the economy

77
MICRO-ECONOMICS

 Deals with the operation of a particular sector, industry or of national economy

 Concerned with prices and production processes
 Contains supply and demand curves
 Aims to maximize gross benefits/profits, minimize costs, or maximize net benefit by
optimising production.
i.e., by estimating the most efficient level of output with the best combination of input for
higher efficiency

78
Importance of Supply and Demand Curve

 Optimising production by
finding efficient level of
output, the best combination
of goods to produce or the
best combination of inputs.
 Cost of inputs and the selling
price of outputs are used as
indicators of efficiency
 Maximize benefits and
minimize costs

79
TYPES OF ECONOMIC VALUES

80
 BASIC NORMATIVE THEORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS

 It characterized Pollution as a public “bad”

 Public bad was correlated to “waste discharges” in relation to the production of goods
as given below
U = U(X,Q)
X=X(L,E,Q)
Q=Q(E)

Where U = utility of a representative consumer

X = goods consumed
Q= level of pollution
E = waste emission from production of X
L = conventional inputs like labour and capital
81
 Polluting agents need to be “priced” equal to the marginal external cost of their
polluting activities to induce them to internalize at the margin the full social
costs of their pursuits
 Introduction of price incentives in form of Pigouvian tax on polluting
agent equal to marginal social damage
 The unit tax or “effluent fee” here was directly related to the polluting
activity and to its related input or output.
DAMAGE FUNCTION

S = S(Q)
Where S = People value
Q = pollution 82
THE STICK OR CARROT ? –How to choose Environmental Policy Instruments

Unit Subsidies or Marketable Goals of Environmental Economics

Emission Permits  Cut extravagant resource exploitation
 Seek sustainable development

Subsidies profits Increased supply curve

Higher number of firms

Taxes Reduced profits contraction in size of

firm
83
84
ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCE

Absorptive Capacity of Environment ?

85
TECHNIQUES FOR VALUATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

COST AND BENEFIT ANALYSIS

Identifies the impact of development on each person affected at various points in time,
and thereby estimate the aggregate value which each person gains or loses.

 Currently, it reflects on array of conceptual and empirical developments in environmental

economics eg., valuation of health risks, ecosystem services etc.

 The core activity in environmental CBA is the estimation of monetary values for
environmental changes, environmental valuation.

86
SHADOW PRICES

87
 ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES: GREEN TAXES
 The concept is to shift the tax burden from Income to Eco-taxes, i.e., consumer pays for
environmental management goals
 Transboundary pollution, scarce shared international resource, and threat of global change
has internationalized its boundary.
 Functions of green tax is :
 To aware the consumer of the costs of environmental impacts (eg., tax on CFC use
reflects it’s impact on ozone layer) and not just to raise revenue
 To give people and company incentives to invent, innovate and respond to
environmental challenges
 To encourage manufacturer to reduce waste and environment damage to keep the cost
down, and thus prices to the purchaser 88
89
90
ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES: ENERGY TAXES

91
92
ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES: CARBON EMISSION TAXES

In India no explicit carbon tax is

present

93
CARBON TAXATION SCHEME

94
 TRADEABLE EMISSION QUOTAS (TEQs)

 TEQs are used to control air pollution emissions (eg., US more than a decade), or
control of water-borne effluent (France, ‘69).
 Also deals with transboundary atmospheric pollution, especially carbon-dioxide
emissions (eg. TEQ club (Canada, Japan, USA, Russia ) post ‘97 Kyoto Climate
Change Agreement that allows trade emission permits among its members

95
PROBLEMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL TAXES

 Higher taxes may cause cost-push inflation

 Taxes have regressive effect on people on low incomes
 Producers may be able to pass the burden of tax to consumers, if demand for the
good is inelastic or the supply of the product is elastic
 Same Tax levied on producers irrespective of polluting risks due to poor
identification of the polluter
 Expansion of gray markets where both producers and consumers refrain from paying
taxes.
96
GREEN FUNDING
 To Aid in Environmental Management and Sustainable development for
developing nations to tackle environmental problems , eg., biodiversity loss,
climate change, international water management , ozone depletion, etc.

 The Global Environmental Facility (GEF), 1990 funded by World Bank, UNDP,
UNEP targets at poor nations involving NGOs, or International Agenices to
identify, monitor & implement projects

 Aids can be bilateral (government –government) or multilateral (several

government- international agencies); aid-for-trade-provision; aid in form of
funding, food aids, skilled manpower, training etc.
97
DEBT, STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT & ENVIRONMENT

Problems of Servicing Debt

• Money diverted for servicing debt is unavailable for EM
• Resources under stress to earn foreign exchange for interest, or to pay debts
• Structural adjustment measures to combat debt causes problem

Structural adjustments are strategic response to debts like deregulation of nation; free
exchange rates; reduced state expenditures

98
ECONOMICS OF NATURAL RESOURCES
FISHERIES
WHY
 In 1970 due to overfishing by
foreign fleets, world’s coastal
nation declared 200 miles as
no fishing zone.
The Northern cod fishery in the Western
Atlantic collapsed in 1992, in spite of intense
management activity by the Canadian
government. The collapse caused by extreme
over fishing has destroyed the economy of the
Province of Newfoundland, throwing some
30,000 fishermen and plant workers onto the
unemployment rooster. Only limited signs of
recovery of this historical fishery had appeared
by 1999
99
FISHERIES AS NATURAL STOCK

 The production of the natural

capital, F(x), is facilitated by
the natural environment
(driven ultimately by solar
energy)
 Positive investment in natural
capital occurs, if h > F(x)
 Disinvestments occurs, if h <
RATE OF CHANGE OF BIOMASS
F(x).
 Equilibrium at stock level is
reached at h = F(x).

100
ECONOMICS OF FISHERIES AS NATURAL STOCK RESERVE
Max F (x) = F (xMSY) = hMSY
 K = environmental carrying capacity
of the population;
 x = K is a stable equilibrium (when h =
0) of the natural population.
 The harvest rate hMSY = maximum
sustainable yield (MSY) that can be
harvested from the population;
where MSY is the attribute that is
practiced for traditional management
of fish as a stock reserve
101
ECONOMICS OF FISHERIES AS NATURAL STOCK RESERVE
Again, if quantity E, is considered as the fishing effort (e.g., the number of standardised
fishing vessels in operation at time t), then we can assume that:

h = qEx ……………. (A)

where h = harvest rate of the fish stock

q = the catchability coefficient (may in general depend on the current stock size x), a
constant
c = unit cost of effort
p = the landed price of fish,

then the net flow of revenue (economic rent), R equals to:

R = ph – cE = (pqx –c) E ….. (B) { i.e., income earned per harvest minus the cost}

Can be accounted to understand overexploitation of fishing 102

ECONOMICS OF BIONOMIC EQUILIBRIUM OF FISHERIES

Bionomic equilibrium is the natural equilibrium point where the economic forces
and the forces of biological productivity will be in balance.

The net flow of revenue (economic rent), R equals to: R = (pqx –c) E

At bionomic equilibrium, x = xBE =

lower costs or higher prices (i.e., when c/pq > x ) lead to reduced biomass levels at
equilibrium. Likewise, increased vessel efficiency, as reflected by increased catchability
q, also reduces the bionomic equilibrium.
Thus , the sustainable yield, F (xBE) will increase in the early development of the fishery,
but will subsequently decline once xBE falls below xMSY. This latter situation, involving low
fish stocks and low catches, characterizes over fishing in the usual sense of the term. 103
Negative Externalities in Fishing

 Over-fishing is sometimes attributed to externalities in the operation of individual

firms/fishmonger competing in the fishery.
 Externalities arise because each firm bases its decision solely on current returns to
effort (pqx-c) and does not consider the effects of its catches on future stock levels.
 The interference of fishing vessels with one another during search or capture activities
resulting in crowding externalities
 Also by-catch externalities occurs when firms seek a particular species (e.g., shrimp) or
destroy other species (such as juvenile fish) that may also have value, either directly or
as food for other targeted species

104
Beneficial Externalities in Fishing

 The management agency determines a total annual catch (TAC). The cumulative
year’s catch is tracked and the fishery closed once that TAC had been reached.
 To prevent over capacity, management agencies may be forced to regulate vessel
size, appropriate horsepower and fishing gear. They may also limit the number of
vessels licensed to participate in the fishery.
 An alternative approach, now being used with increasing frequency, employs
individual’s transferable quotas (ITQs). Each firm has a specified annual quota, which
may be caught whenever and however it desires. Quota units may be bought from or
sold to other fishers.

105
WATER AS NATURAL STOCK RESERVE

 Water resources serve multiple purposes in meeting human needs and their allocation has

been subject of dispute over centuries.

 On the global level, irrigated agriculture is by far the largest consumer of water among

various users, and concern over improving water use efficiency in this sector has been

widely reflected in the water economics literature

 Many of the conceptual and methodological issues that have been raised in addressing

agricultural water issues apply in other sectors as well

106
FARM WATER ALLOCATION DECISONS
WHY ?
increases in water prices and reductions in water availability

HOW ?
Use of effective water:

 The water that is actually utilized by the crop is effective water and is commonly
measured by crop evapotranspiration coefficients (Stewart, et al., 1974, Grimm, et al.,
1987).
 The total amount of water applied to the crop comes from several sources, including
water applied for irrigation, rainwater and run off water that is drained from other fields.
Other not tended is washed off as surface runoff or for groundwater percolation
 The distinction between applied water and effective water gives rise to the concept of
water efficiency

107
Water use efficiency is the ratio between effective and applied water.

 Water efficiency is highly dependent on the ability of the soil to store water, which
can be utilized by the crop over time.
 Water efficiency is, typically, higher on heavy clay soils, which retain applied water, in
comparison with sandy soils through which water passes rapidly.
 Climate and water quality also affect water efficiency. Through their effect on water
efficiency, these factors influence irrigation technology choices.

108
ECONOMICS OF GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT

 The optimal management of groundwater can be modelled as a non-renewable resource

(e.g., desert regions with a closed aquifer) or as a renewable resource (i.e., when aquifers
are recharged).
 The dynamics of optimal groundwater use depend on the price of energy, the interest rate,
the efficiency of pumping and the hydrological characteristics of the system.
 The rate of pumping declines over time with the interest rate, and the user cost of water
(price minus extraction cost) rises.
 Technological changes increases water efficiency, & leads to a reduction in extraction levels
and extends the economic life of a finite aquifer. In contrast, improvements in pumping
technology that reduce extraction costs actually tend to accelerate the pumping of aquifer.
109
ECONOMICS OF GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT contd..

 In cases where groundwater aquifers can be recharged, the groundwater system may
reach a steady state where pumping is equal to recharge.
 If the steady state level is below the initial stock of water, then a decline in pumping
over time will occur, until the steady state is reached.
 In cases where groundwater aquifers have already been significantly depleted, an initial
period when replenishment exceeds pumping levels will precede the attainment of the
steady state.

110
Negative Externalities in GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT

 Negative Externalities arise because current water users do not take into
account the impact of their pumping on future water users (lowers the
depth of water, increasing pumping costs, and reduces the stock of water)
 In the absence of any common-pool management scheme, current users
determine their water use levels by setting the value of the marginal
product of water equal to their private pumping costs, rather than full social
costs.

111
Beneficial Externalities in GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT contd..
(a) Taxing pumping, or by establishing aggregate pumping levels and introducing a system of
transferable permits for pumping rights within the system.
(b) In many cases, the management of groundwater can be improved by removing policies
which encourage over pumping, particularly the subsidization of electricity.
(c) Electricity is the major cost component in operating irrigation pumps where lower
electricity rates decrease the cost of pumping and increase the depth to which it is
profitable for farmers to pump.
(d) Surface water canals have been established in many regions to compensate or augment
depleted groundwater aquifers.
(e) In other situations, groundwater reservoirs have been established as buffer stock to
supplement the use of surface water supplies in times of low supply. 112
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Environmental Impact Assessment and Evolution

Environmental Clearance Procedure in India Environmental Clearance Procedure in India
EIA Documentation and Process
Preliminary Stages of EIA and Impact Prediction, Evaluation and Mitigation
Impact on Decisions Participation, Requisites and Review, EIA Monitoring and Auditing

113
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)

(Munn 1979), EIA can be described as a process for identifying the likely consequences for

the biogeophysical environment and for man’s health and welfare of implementing

particular activities and for conveying this information. At a stage when it can materially

affect their decision, to those responsible for sanctioning the proposals.

Socioeconomic effects The ultimate objective of providing decision makers with an

also included indication of the likely consequences of their actions
114
The federal dimension to land-use planning in 1970 under NEPA where decisions on
federal activities can only be taken with the foreknowledge of their likely
environmental consequences

115
EVOLUTION OF EIA

116
Evolution of EIA in India

117
WHY IMPACT ASSESSMENTS IS REQUIRED IN PLANNING

1. Local Economy
2. Natural Environment
3. Aesthetics and cultural values
4. Public and private services
5. Other social impacts

118
RELATION BETWEEN
EIA WITH OTHER
COMPONENTS

119
UNDERSTANDING IMPACTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

1. An impact has both spatial and temporal components

2. Environmental systems are not static but dynamic
3. Impact assessment requires analysis of the natural changes (eg., sedimentation in
estuarine system versus development on a stable hard-rock coastline)
4. Direct vs. Indirect impacts must be considered (eg., construction of dam results in direct
impact of upward movement of migratory fish, whereas the indirect impact on the same
fish populations would be oxygen stress due to reduced turbulence and streamflow)

120
PURPOSE OF EIA

 To facilitate decision –making

 The environmental implications of a proposed action is laid out, or

alternative approach
 The environmental impact statement acts as a guidemap in this case.

121
Purpose of EIA contd..

 To aid in formation of development

 Provides framework for location identification, design, and

environmental concerns
 Pinpoints the areas requiring modification to eliminate adverse
impact on the environment
 A well charted out framework in early stage of planning
creates trust and improved relation of the developer with the
planning authority and the local communities

122
Purpose of EIA contd..

 To be an instrument for sustainable development

 Institutional response to the maintenance and sustenance of natural

resources with elimination of environmental damage
 Investigation also covers the interaction of economic and social
development and the ecosystems, and the reciprocal impact
between human actions and the bio-geophysical world

123
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS)

 It is the documentation of the

information and estimates derived
from the various steps of EIA process
 It provides information to the
decision-makers/regulators about the
project

124
2006 AMENDMENT TO THE EIA NOTIFICATION, INDIA

•Decentralisation of Project Clearances: It classified the developmental projects in

two categories:

• Category A (national level appraisal): projects are appraised by Impact

Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC)

• Category B (state level appraisal): State Level Environment Impact

Assessment Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee
(SEAC) provide clearance to the Category B projects.

126
•Introduction of Different Stages: The Amendment introduced four stages into
EIA Cycle; Screening, Scoping, Public hearing and Appraisal.

• Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus

they do not have to undergo the screening process.

• Category B projects undergo a screening process and are further classified

into B1 (Mandatorily requiring EIA) and B2 (Not requiring EIA).

•Projects with Mandatory Clearance: Projects such as mining, thermal power

plants, river valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, harbours and airports)
and industries including very small electroplating or foundry units are mandated
to get environment clearance.
127
https://swarajyamag.com/news-brief/vizag-gas-leak-lg-polymers-india-operated-
plant-illegally-as-it-did-not-have-valid-environmental-clearance
2019

128
2020

129
130
https://
www.sociolegalreview.
com/post/from-2006-
to-2020-the-ongoing-
problems-of-the-eia

131
 KEY PROPOSAL OF EIA 2020

Reduced Time for Public Hearings:

One of the major steps of the EIA Mechanism is the public participation. The
2020 draft proposes to reduce the notice period for public hearings 30 to 20
days

Exemption of Projects:
Projects classified into A, B1 and B2, a host of projects are exempted from
public scrutiny.

Category B2 projects do not require mandatory Environment Clearance (EC),

unlike the Category A and B1 projects.

132
 Contd…
•Exempted Projects: The projects under this exempted category include:

• Offshore and onshore oil, gas and shale exploration.

• Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW.
• Irrigation projects between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares of command area.
• Small and medium cement plants.
• Acids other than phosphoric or ammonia, sulphuric acid.
• MSMEs in dye and dye intermediates, bulk drugs, synthetic rubbers, medium-sized
paint units.
• All inland waterway projects and expansion or widening of highways between 25 km
and 100 km with defined parameters.

• These include roads that cut through forests and dredging of major rivers.
• Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive areas.
• Specified building construction and area development projects; built-up area up to
1,50,000 sq. m. 133
 Contd…

•Post-clearance compliance: Project approved by the concerned authority, the

proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid down in the EIA report
in order to ensure that no further environmental damages take place.

•Annual Submission of Reports: The new draft EIA, proposed the submission of
compliance reports annually whereas as per the 2006 notification, the compliance
report was to be submitted every six months

•No Public Reporting for Non-Compliance: The EIA Notification 2020 excludes
reporting of violations and non-compliance by the public.

•Post-facto Clearance: Another major proposal in the draft 2020 is granting ‘post-facto
clearance’ where a project that has been operating without environmental clearance,
can be regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.
134
135
EIA DOCUMENTATION AND PROCEDURE

The preliminary stages of EIA are:

1. Project Screening
2. Scoping
3. Consideration of Alternatives
4. Establishment of Environmental Baseline
5. Impact Identification

136
Screening

1. A screening mechanism seeks to focus on those projects with potentially

significant adverse environmental impacts or where the impacts are not
fully known.
2. Those with little or no impacts are screened out and are allowed to
proceed to the normal planning permission/administrative processes
without any additional assessment and without additional loss of time and
expense
137
Scoping

1. The scope of the EIA depends on the impacts and issues that it addresses.
2. An initial scoping of possible impacts identifies the key impacts from those
thought to be non-significant and unclear.
3. It also examines the impacts in the various categories. In the process,
those identified as non-significant are eliminated and those in the
uncertain category but maybe potentially significant, are added to the
initial category of other potentially significant impacts.
138
Consideration of Alternatives

1. The comparison of alternatives is in done accordance to environmental, functional,

economic and social terms which strengthens decision-making, public credibility, and
improves EIA
2. The EIA report must present clear choices on the planning and implementation of the
project, and it should make clear the likely results of each option. For instance, to
mitigate adverse impacts, the EIA could propose: pollution control technology or
design features; reduction, treatment or disposal of wastes; compensation or
concessions to affected groups.

139
Establishment of Environmental Baseline

The establishment of environmental baseline includes both the present and

likely future state of the environment, assuming that the project is not
undertaken, taking into account changes resulting from natural events and
from other human activities (Glasson et al., 1994).

1. It focuses on those aspects of the environment that may be significantly affected by

the project, either directly or indirectly.
2. The rationale for the choice of focus should be explained with reference to the nature
of the project and to initial scoping and consultation exercises.
3. The interaction between the elements and the functional relationship must also be
140
Impact Identification

1. It involves the use of a list of impacts to be identified

2. It brings together the project characteristics and environmental baseline characteristics
to identify the potential impacts
3. The analyst needs to: ensure compliance with regulations; provide a comprehensive coverage of
impacts including social, economic and physical; distinguish between positive and negative, large and
small, long-term and short-term, reversible and irreversible impacts; identify secondary, indirect and
cumulative impacts as well as direct impacts; distinguish between significant and insignificant impacts;
allow comparison of alternative developmental proposals; consider impacts within the constraints of an
area‟s carrying capacity; incorporate qualitative as well as quantitative information; be easy and
economical to use; be unbiased and to give consistent results; be of use in summarizing and presenting
141
IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGIES

Use: Is the analysis primarily a decision or an information document?

Alternatives: Are alternatives fundamentally or incrementally different? If differences are
fundamental, such as preventing flood damage by levee construction as opposed to flood plain
zoning, for example, then impact significance can better be measured against some absolute
standard than by direct comparison of alternatives, since impacts will differ in kind as well as size
Public involvement: Does the anticipated role of the public in the analysis involve substantive
preparation, token review, or vital review? A substantive preparation role will also allow a greater
degree of quantification or weighting of impact significance through the direct incorporation of
public values. 142
Familiarity: How familiar is the analyst with both the type of action contemplated and the
physical site?
Issue significance: How big is the issue in terms of controversy and scope? All other things being
equal, the bigger the issue the greater the need for explicitness, quantification, and
identification of key issues and the less appropriate is the arbitrary significance weights or
specific formulas for trading-off one type of impact (e.g., environmental) against another type
(e.g., economic).
Administrative constraints: Are choices limited by the agency procedural or format
requirements? Specific agency policy or guidelines may rule out some tools by specifying the
range of impacts to be addressed, the need for analysing trade-offs, or the time frame of
analysis.
143
IMPACT IDENTIFICATION
1. Ad hoc: Identifies broader categorization (eg., impacts on flora and fauna, lakes, forests etc.)
2. Overlays: Environmental characteristics (physical, social, economic, aesthetic etc.) within
the project boundary using map
3. Checklist: List of environmental parameters (not necessary attesting direct cause-effect links)
checks within the project area as questionnaire etc.
4. Matrices: It involves actions & impacts through two lists – (a) list of project activities, and (b)
impacted environmental characteristics in a open matrix
5. Networks: It establishes cause-condition-effect-networks which helps to identify and trace
series of impacts triggered by a project action.
144
SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE CHECKLIST

145
 IMPACT PREDICTION EVALUATION MITIGATION
PREDICTION
• It involves identifying consequence of a proposed activity and is a vital and similar to
impact assessment. The Social Impact Assessment (SIA) , hazard assessment, risk
assessment, technology impact assessment, eco-auditing, and other prediction tools run
parallel to EIA
• For eg., SIA predicts changes in behaviour of various groups in society; changes in
established social control mechanisms; alterations in behaviour, attitude, local norms,
equity, social processes; mutual support patterns, etc.
• For eg., GIS & other quantitative tools employment in study of change in landscape
ecology; prediction of public health concern and others
• Energy flow in an ecosystem as a ecosystem prediction 146
EVALUATION PARAMETERS
1. SIGNIFICANCE OF AN
 Comparison with laws, regulations or accepted IMPACT
standards. 2. SCALE-WEIGHTING
TECHNIQUE
 Consultation with the relevant decision-makers. 3. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
 Reference to pre-set criteria such as protected sites,
features or species.
 Consistency with government policy objectives.
 Acceptability to the local community or the general
public

147
SIGNIFICANCE OF AN IMPACT

148
 SCALE WEIGHTING TECHNIQUE

 Scaling of the effects addresses issues of

magnitude and is based on a numerical system:
highest number (good effect); mid-point (average
effect, or a neutral one); and lowest number (very
adverse effect).
 With weighting, values are assigned to elements
of the environment (or of a proposal) based on
their relative importance or significance.
 Scaling works best when the scales relate to real,
measurable changes, as in water quality or
employment levels.
149
 COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS

Cost-benefit analysis is comprehensive in scope. It takes a long view of projects (farther

as well as nearer future) and a wide view (in the sense of allowing for side effects). It is
based in welfare economics, and seeks to include all the relevant costs and benefits to
evaluate the net social benefit of a project

 The stages involved are project definition, identification and enumeration of costs and
benefits, evaluation of costs and benefits, discounting and presentation of results, etc.
 The basic evaluation principle is to measure in monetary terms as best understood by the
community and decision makers.
 If the net social benefit minus cost is positive, then there may be a presumption in favour of
a project
150
MITIGATION MEASURES

 Changing project sites, routes, processes, raw materials, operating methods, disposal routes or
locations, timing, or engineering designs.
 Introducing pollution controls, waste treatment, monitoring, phased implementation, landscaping,
personnel training, special social services or public education.
 Offering (as compensation) restoration of damaged resources, money to affected persons,
concessions on other issues, or off-site programmes to enhance some other aspect of the
environment or quality of life for the community.

The mitigation plan should be supplemented with an environmental management plan (EMP) to guide the proponent
towards environmental improvements. The EMP is a crucial input to monitoring the clearance conditions and, therefore,
the details of monitoring should be included in the EMP.

151
 PARTICIPATION, REQUISITES AND REVIEW
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

Annex 1 to Our Common Future recommends that "States shall inform in a timely manner all persons likely to
be significantly affected by a planned activity and to grant them equal access in administrative and judicial
proceedings". Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration insists that environmental issues are best handled with the
participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant level

WHO ARE THE PUBLIC ?

 The experts within the community, the scientific organisations, the expert government agencies,
university departments and expert professional groups.
 Local authorities, citizen groups and NGOs.
 The stakeholders, i.e., those with a direct interest in, or who are directly affected by, the project.
 Societies, cultural groups and individual citizens interested in, or affected by, the project.
 The general community.

152
HOW TO ENSURE PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

 make sure that all the identified publics have been

advised before the EIA;
 state about the project, its objectives, programmes,
the proposed public involvement process, and the
anticipated documentation;
 information must be communicated, not just
provided;
 language, format, illustration and media vehicle is
appropriate to a particular public
153
REVIEW OF EIA

A proper review and evaluation of EIS requires a triple-A test of appropriateness (i.e.,
coverage of key issues and impacts), adequacy (i.e., impact analysis), and action ability
(i.e., does the report provide the basis for informed decision making?).

CRITERIAS OF EIS

(i) Completeness and conformance with the TOR (terms of reference) for the EIA.
(ii) Accuracy and veracity as defined by general acceptable scientific criteria (e.g., quality assurance
and quality control procedures for analysis of sampling data) and use of acceptable methods for
the assessment of environmental impacts.
(iii) Clear description of environmental impacts, recommended mitigation measures, environmental
monitoring plan and environmental management plan.
154
EIA MONITORING & AUDITING

 The issues in EIA monitoring and

auditing appear to shift from purely
technical and scientific to
management aspects.
 Key issues in EIA monitoring and
auditing, thus, are the accuracy of
impact prediction and the quality of
the EIS.
 EISs, are, generally, expected to
contain testable hypotheses, and
monitoring and auditing focused on
compliance.
155
 Environmental pressures may be
monitored by adopting
environmental management and
auditing systems.
 It consist of measures such as
procedures for handling of wastes,
prevention of spillage, etc.,
performance checking and
maintenance of protection measures
and facilities (such as sampling of
groundwater beneath secure
disposal sites), registration of
generated waste and its method of
disposal and registration of material
flows in order to discover leaks.
 These systems maybe specified in the
permit conditions.
156
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

158
PURPOSE OF AUDIT

 An audit should provide a list of recommended actions, in terms

of increasing cost-effective in addressing the critical
environmental issues.
 This list should include interim and long-term targets and a
timetable for achieving them, together with indication
investments and other resources
159
 AREAs in ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

 Design Specification and Layout: inspects the design with the resource requirement, production capacity,
storage facilities, pollution control devices and etc.
 Resource Management: here it checks th efficient use of resource, waste minimization, and sustainability
 Pollution control systems and procedures: helps to identify the source of problem, and incorporate
corrective measures
 Emergency plans and response/safety system: helps to design the cycle, rules, and address the issues in
safety and response programme in the industry
 Medicinal and health facilities/industrial hygiene and occupational health: It inspects the primary
occupational facilities available in an industry to look after the health of its human resources
 Conformation to regulatory requirement: It helps to make comparison of the existing status with the
new regulations and updates the Industry manager on the new compliances
160
 OBJECTIVE OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

 An auditing (i.e., stock –taking or inventory –focus) approach to the

environment which seeks to review conditions and evaluate impacts of
development (e.g. new systems of national accounts)
 Studies aimed at avoiding or reducing environmental damage
 Means by which a body is systematically and holistically monitors the
quality of the environment it interacts with, or is responsible for (vital in
any quest for sustainable development). i.e. eco-audit

161
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING Liabilities

Objective-Based Management
Environmental
Audit
Client-Driven Activities

162
OBJECTIVE ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

163
CLIENT DRIVEN ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING

164
BASIC STRUCTURE OF EA
• Adequate team staffing and auditor training.
• Explicit audit programme objectives, scope, resources and frequency.
A process which collects, analyses, interprets and documents information sufficient to achieve
audit objectives.
• A process which includes specific procedure to promptly prepare candid, clear and
appropriate written reports on audit findings, corrective actions and schedules for
implementation.
• A process which includes quality assurance procedures to assure the accuracy and
thoroughness of environmental audits.
165
STEPS IN EA

• Audit preparation: this includes choice of the auditor/audit group, collection of

background material and planning of the audit orientation.
• A systematic scrutiny or review of a facility: depending on the orientation and goals of
the audit, the focus of the scrutiny differs.
• Reporting: involves reporting of observation of deficiencies and possible alternatives.
• Follow up: evaluation of the results of the remedial actions

166
WASTE AUDITS AND POLLUTION PREVENTION ASSESSMENT

The US Congress Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) defines waste audit as a

systematic, periodic internal review of a company’s processes and operations,
designed to identify and provide information about opportunities to reduce wastes

As recommended by UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and UNIDO (United

Nations Industrial Development Organization)
• Phase 1 Pre-assessment: Audit preparation
• Phase 2 Material balance: (a) Process input and output (b) Derive material balance
• Phase 3 Synthesis: (a) Identify waste reduction option (b) Evaluate waste reduction
options (c ) Waste reduction action plan
167
BACKGROUND OF WASTE AUDIT IN INDIA
The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 in India came into
existence after public litigation was filed in the Supreme Court.

Environmental audit was introduced in India to minimise generation of wastes and pollution. In this
regard, a gazette notification was issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests on March 13th,
1992 and later amended on April 22nd, 1993. This applies to an industry, operation or process
requiring consent to operate under Section 25 of the water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act, 1974 or under Section 21 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981),
or both, or authorization under the Environmental Protection Act, 1986 (29 of 1986) (Srivastava,
2003).

168
APPROACH TO WASTE AUDIT
1. Back end Approach: measures the materials generated by the entire facility (the
waste/recyclables are not considered for assessment)
2. Activities Approach: assessment of the waste, or recyclables within each activity
area of the facility
3. Input/Output Approach: Material required to the output material produced is
tracked for each activity area

169
 REQUIREMENT OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (MSWM) EA IN
INDIA **

1. Mechanization: Developed countries have provided technical assistance in SWM to developing countries
focusing on SWM as a technical problem with the assumption that the solid waste problem can be solved
with mechanization
2. Consumption Pattern of Waste: The difference in organic content which is much higher in the low income
countries than the high income countries, while the paper and plastic content is much higher in high income
countries than low income countries.
3. Calorific Value of Waste: In higher income countries disposable material, magazines and packaged food are
used in higher quantities; this results in the waste having higher calorific value, lower specific density and
lower moisture content. In the case of lower income countries, the usage of fresh vegetables to packaged
food is much higher and mostly materials that are reusable are used.
Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007) ‘Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, pp.369–
170
391.
171
 BACKGROUND OF MSWM IN BANGALORE, CASE STUDY-2007
 The Bangalore City Corporation (BCC), which has 100 wards within its municipal jurisdiction, has a population
of 4,292,223 accounting for 75.48% of the total population
 The decadal growth rate of population for the decade 1991–2001 for Bangalore City is as high as 61.36%.
 The amount of waste generated in Bangalore city varies from 1700 MT/day to 2300 MT/day
 The Bangalore Metropolitan Area is, on the whole, divided into 30 ranges and 100 Revenue wards under the
jurisdiction of Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BMP). BMP was responsible for the SWM policy, setting up
targets and objectives. Revenue wards are further divided into 294 health wards for proper management of
the sanitation functions. Out of these 294 health wards 112 are managed by BMP, while 182 wards have been
assigned to private agencies on contract basis.

Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007) ‘Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, pp.369–
172
391.
 METHODS USED IN EA OF MSWM BANGALORE

• Compliance audit. To check if the current waste management process is being carried
out as per the legislation.
• Operational risk audit in combination with pollution prevention audit. To check the
frequency with which an environmental damage occurs and what the consequence of
it is. The measures that have been taken against these possible environmental
damages were verified.
• Resource management audit. To check the optimal utilization of water, energy and
material resources.
• Occupational risk audit. To verify the measures of occupational safety.
Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007) ‘Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, pp.369–
173
391.
 AUDIT PROCESS
1. Site survey: It was carried out for seven representative sample wards (Shivajinagar,
Malleswaram, Koramangala, Indian Institute of Science campus (IISc), Hindustan
Machine Tools colony (HMT), Airport Road and Chikpet).
2. Checklist Preparation: (a) to check the presence or absence of techniques used, (b)
safety measures adopted, (c) compliance with regulatory measures, and (d) pollution
prevention system adopted.
3. Qualitative data collection: (a) Interviews with health Inspectors, workers and lorry
drivers were done at the ward level. (b) Discussions with range health officers, zonal
health officers, the chief health officer and the special commissioner.

Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007) ‘Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, pp.369–
174
391.
 MSWM– MSWM PRACTICE IN
BANGALORE

Ramachandra, T.V. and Bachamanda, S. (2007) ‘Environmental audit of Municipal Solid Waste Management’, Int. J. Environmental Technology and Management, Vol. 7, Nos. 3/4, pp.369–
175
391.
 MSWM INSPECTION OBSERVATION, MALLESHWARAM
BANGALORE
 Door-to-door collection adopted in Malleswaram area, resulted in efficient collection of waste and reduction of
littering, foul odour and unaesthetic appearance of bins. However, in commercial areas, due to the absence of
community bins, sudden waste, generated at odd hours, was disposed in the street. A few waste heaps can be
found on the roadsides in commercial areas.
 All the trucks that used for transportation of waste had meshes that prevent littering of waste, but 40% of the
trucks had partial polythene cover and 20% had no polythene cover and this resulted in scattering of waste and
foul odour during transport.
 The recycling process carried out by the informal sector that has resulted in high efficiency of recovery of
recyclable material. No other process was carried out, leading to the entire waste being disposed.
 A large quantity of organic waste was produced in this ward, including organic waste generated in a market. The
waste was disposed off in the Betahalli dump yard, causing foul odour, scattering, leachate formation, and air
pollution from burning and methane emission from decomposing organic matter.
176
FUNCTIONAL
COMPONENTS OF
MSWM IDENTIFIED
*Only the areas having bins
are taken into
consideration.
**Only the commercial
areas have been taken into
consideration i.e.,
Shivajinagar, Malleswaram,
Koramangala and Chikpet.

177
 MSWM INSPECTION ALL WARDS, BANGALORE

 In the sampled wards of Bangalore, the waste was stored in open or closed community
bins. Out of the community bins present, the average percentage of bins covered is 49%.
 The collection of the waste is carried out by the community bin method and the door-to-
door method.
 The percentage of area covered by community bin in commercial areas is 17.5%. The
door-to-door collection method has been implemented in all areas of the city as it is a
suitable method for collection from residential areas and also suitable for collection of
segregated waste.
 In Bangalore door-to-door collection has been implemented in 94% of the residential
areas. However, only 3% of the waste is segregated at source. 178
 MSWM INSPECTION ALL WARDS, BANGALORE contd..
 No transfer stations in Bangalore was identified and all the waste was directly
transported to the disposal site. This is very expensive and the efficiency of the trucks is
not utilised to the maximum.
 As per the regulations, all trucks should have mesh and polythene covering. However,
only 96% of the trucks have mesh covering and 41.43% of the trucks have polythene
covering.
 The quantity of waste processed was very small. The informal sector in the city managed
the recycling sector, 18% of the total waste generated was recycled by this sector. The
other process method adopted in the city was composting. 3.14% of the waste is reduced
through composting. The final quantity of waste sent to the dump yard and quarry (open
dump) was 60.71% and 21.14%, respectively 179
 AUDIT OUTCOME***

1. In the storage function, only 49% of the present bins are covered.
2. In collection, 17.5% of the commercial areas have community bins and 94% of the residential areas have
adopted the door-to-door method. With these methods of collection, only 3% of waste segregation has
been achieved.
3. There are no transfer stations present and out of the trucks present, only 41.43% have polythene covering.
4. Recycling is carried out mainly by the informal sector achieving a high level of efficiency.
5. 3.14% of waste reduction is achieved through composting and 60.71% of the waste is disposed in dump
yards and 21.14% is disposed in open quarry sites.
6. The setting up of sanitary landfill sites has to speed-up and this needs to be given top priority.
7. The number of treatment process plants has to be increased to manage total quantity of waste generated.

180
 AUDIT OUTCOME CONCLUSION

It helped in understanding the structure and management of the system, which helped
to understand the objectives, strategies, success, failure of strategies and the issues
faced while implementing strategies. The site surveys and ward level interviews helped
to verify the process and to identify the lacunae in each functional element. Site visits
to the Karnataka Compost Development Authority, Terra Firma Biotechnologies,
Betahalli dump yard, K.R. Puram dump yard and the quarry site in Bomanhalli were done
during the study to understand waste processing and disposal.

181
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

182
LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)

To ensure a sustainable future, statements and studies must be followed by

meaningful actions that effectively reduce environmental impact, and which can even
improve the situation. For an action to be efficient, three conditions must be fulfilled:
• Technological solutions must be available
• Different solutions must be prioritized and best practices selected, accounting for
environmental efficiency, cost, and resulting economic constraints
• Actions should be optimized to further reduce impacts
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a decision-making tool which specifically addresses
this need of selecting and optimizing available technological solutions. 183
184
185
 Three organizations were and are involved in the development and standardization
of LCA: the Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC), the
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and the ISO
 Since 2002, the Life Cycle Initiative has been an important institutional framework
for the development of LCA methods and their use in industry
 Launched by SETAC and UNEP, this initiative aims to develop and disseminate
practical tools for evaluating solutions, risks, advantages, and disadvantages
associated with products and services throughout their life cycle

186
Four Phases of LCA per ISO

DIRECT APPLICATIONS

Product Development &

Improvement
Strategic Planning
Public Policy Making
Marketing
Others

187
Goal & Scope Definition

The goal-definition component is of central importance to each LCA. It defines not only
the reason for performing a specific study, its goal, depth, the system or the systems to
be analyzed, the standards, but also the following, more specific aspects:

1. System boundaries (technical, geographic and time) 2. Functional unit (reference

function) 3. Rules and assumptions (e.g. data, allocation rules for co-products and open-
loop recycling, aggregation) 4. The kind of impact assessment and valuation 5. The
group(s) to be addressed by the study (internal, marketing, general public, politics...) 6.
Peer (Expert) Review

188
Inventory Analysis

Inventory analysis is the central, best developed and most scientific component of LCA.
The message of the inventory is that all activities related to the production of one

functional unit have to be analyzed concerning the following components: raw

material extraction, intermediate products, the product or service
itself, the use phase and finally the waste removal. Energy, transportation
and auxiliary products are included when they are used as inputs. Outputs are co-
products, emissions to air, water and soil, waste-heat and solid wastes.

189
LCA Impact Assessment
How can you compare lead emissions in water with chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) emissions in
air? How can you compare increases in human toxicity with contributions to climate change?
In other words, how can you compare apples and oranges? Some would say that it is not
apples and oranges, but apples and elephants—their impacts are so different! These
elements cannot be directly added, and an apple plus an elephant does not equal two apple-
elephants

Assessment
Criteria ?
190
Impact assessment scheme to link inventory results with category end point or damage
to areas of protection.

191
MIDPOINT CATEGORY & DAMAGE CATEGORY ?
 Inventory results having similar effect (e.g., all the  Each midpoint category is allocated to one or
substance emissions that contribute to the
more damage categories, which
greenhouse effect) are grouped into an impact address the damage to different areas of
category at an intermediary level, called a protection, such as Human Health
midpoint category. For each midpoint category, (HH) and ecosystems. The damage
we define a midpoint indicator. category is represented by a damage
indicator, which is sometimes referred to as
 Each inventory flow is multiplied by a an end point indicator
characterization factor to characterize its
contribution to that midpoint category. The term
midpoint expresses the fact that this point lies
somewhere on the impact pathway
between the inventory results and the
damages. 192
Impact assessment through
Midpoint Categories &
Damage Categories

193
194
195
Product Life Cycle

An LCA entails examining the product from the extraction of raw materials for the
manufacturing process, through the production and use of the item, to its final
disposal, and thus encompassing the entire product system

196
SCHEMA OF PRODUCT
LCA

The unique feature of this

type of assessment is its
focus on the entire life
cycle, rather than a single
manufacturing step or
environmental emission.

197
198
CASE STUDY ON THE
LCA OF SINGLE-USE
CUPS USAGE

199
200
INTRODUCTORY POINTS

 In 2015, the global plastic production amounted to approximately 380 Mt (million

metric tonnes) (Geyer et al., 2017), requiring approx. 6% of the global crude oil
production (World Economic Forum, 2016) and generated an annual waste
equivalent to the annual production due to the streams from previous years.
 To counter increased plastic demand while combating climate change and plastics
littering, novel polymers that are both bio-based and biodegradable, such as PLA
(polylactic acid), have attracted much attention for single-use plastics applications.
 This study evaluates PLA solution for the environmental issues caused by single-use
plastics applications from a policy perspective 201
 To completely abandon the use of single-use cups is difficult in the short term, especially
in the applications with stringent hygiene requirements. For this reason, there is still
need to search for the alternatives for a more sustainable solution for single-use cups.
For single-use cups, most studies consider PET, PP and PS as the main petrochemical
counterparts of PLA.
 The material production phase. For PLA cups, it covers the phases from the cradle (land
use and biomass cultivation), all the conversion steps (including all the biomass
processing, fermentation, purification, and all logistics services) to the delivery of the
polymer at the factory gate. For PET and PP cups, it starts with crude oil extraction and
includes oil refining and the distribution of the final polymer.
202
 E
Biomass Clearings
M
I
Peatland Clearing S
EXPANSION
LUC
Foregone
S
INTENSIFICATION
sequestration
I
Fertilization
(nutrients addition) Soil O
N
S
203
204
205
 Biomass to Polymer Conversion to PLA Cups

 For corn-based PLA, the life cycle starts with corn cultivation (and harvesting), which requires corn
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, limestone, electricity and fuels (e.g. diesel). During
cultivation, dinitrogen oxide, nitrogen oxides, nitrates and phosphates are released. The harvested
corn is transported to the wet milling facility. For each kg of PLA, 2.7 kg of corn is hydrolyzed to
obtain dextrose using a wet milling process. The milling process requires both steam, which is
generated by natural gas, and electricity, which is locally sourced from the grid. The dextrose is
then transported by pipeline to the biorefinery where the lactic acid fermentation process occurs.
From lactic acid, lactide is manufactured and then polymerized to PLA
 The polymer is thermoformed into plastic cups. The electricity consumption for PLA
thermoforming is assumed to be 1.23 kWh per kg of PLA processed.

206
RESULTS OF IMPACT CATEGORIES FOR ONE FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF PLA

207
 IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PLA CUPS
The production of lactic acid and PLA represents the major environmental burden in
the cradle-to-grave life cycle of PLA cups. In particular, it causes 59% of climate
change, 55% of particulate matter, 53% of resource use (minerals and metals) and 77%
of fossil resource use. These impacts are largely caused by the production of the
process heat and electricity required for fermentation, purification and
polymerization.

Thermoforming of cups is the second major source of impact. It is responsible for 53%
of ozone layer depletion, 35% of ionizing radiation, 27% of freshwater eutrophication
and 20% of fossil resource use. The electricity production dominates (80% - 100%)
these impacts 208
 IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF PLA CUPS
The impact of LUC is negligible (about 1% on average) for almost all impact categories except for climate change
and photochemical ozone formation, where it represents respectively 13% and 10% of the cradle-to-grave
impact. . For climate change, the LUC impact is essentially due to the releases of CO2 resulting from land clearing.
For photochemical ozone formation, LUC is mainly due to the CO released during land clearing (burning the
cleared biomass). In particular, the LUC impact caused by US corn production is about 1.6 times higher than the
ones from Thai sugarcane per kg of PLA.

The EoL mix for PLA was based on the current European EoL mix for plastic wastes and assumed to be 15%
mechanical recycling, 15% industrial composting, 39% incineration and 31% landfilling. The overall contribution
of EoL is relatively small for most of the impact categories. EoL contributes to climate change impact significantly
(39%) due to the GHGs emitted from incineration and landfilling due to landfill gas combustion-flaring) and direct
emission of methane from the gas upgrading). Negative EoL in many impact categories of PLA is due to recycling
that allows saving of virgin plastic and waste incineration that recovers heat and electricity
209
210
The impacts of the petrochemical cups are dominated by the production of the polymer
(more than 60% and 45% of impact respectively for PET cups and PP cups in all the six
impact category considered). Thermoforming is the second most important
environmental hotspot (due to electricity consumption).
In particular, for PP cups, the impact of thermoforming is significant for particulate matter
and acidification, where it represents 43% and 37% respectively. EoL is impacting
relevantly only on climate change (24% and 19% respectively for PP and PET cups) mainly
due to incineration.

211
Comparison: PLA cups vs. PP and PET cups

212
 Comparison Conclusion: PLA cups vs. PP and PET cups
Fossil Fuel Depletion: For PLA cups, it is 41% lower than PP and 51% lower than PET. In all
other five impact categories compared, PLA cups offers environmental impact savings
environmental benefits compared to PET but less favorable than PP.

Climate Change: PLA cups are more favorable for climate change, by offering 22% lower GHG
emissions than PET cups. By adding the impact of LUC to PLA cups, this figure becomes 12%.
Compared to PP cups, PLA cups have slightly higher climate change impact, but the
difference is marginal (5%). However, once LUC is accounted for PLA cups, this difference
becomes substantially higher (15%).

Resource Use, Fossil Fuels: PLA cups outperform both PET (approx. 55%) and PP (approx.
38%) in this impact category.
A lower impact is observed in all life cycle stages for PP, i.e. polymer manufacturing, processing, transportation,
and EoL waste management. The electricity used for the thermoforming process was one of the main sources
of environmental impact
213
 Conclusion: PLA cups vs. PP and PET cups

PLA is designed to biodegrade under industrial composting conditions, and its recycling is also feasible. The EU
aims to reduce the share of landfill and the recycling rate is expected to increase. However, appropriate
infrastructure for logistics and governance of both composting and recycling are still absent. In the future, an
hypothetically best possible scenario for PLA cups “intended EoL” could be represented by 50% recycling plus
50% composting. For petrochemical cups, this hypothetically ideal EoL waste management would be 100%
recycling.
To understand how much the current environmental footprint of PLA could be affected by using more
renewable electricity in the material manufacturing phase as consumption of electricity causes an important
part of the impact of monomer and polymer production.

214
 Conclusion: PLA cups vs. PP and PET cups

When hypothetically best possible EoLs are assumed, PLA cups

become better than PP cups for climate change, allowing 12%
reduction (with LUC impact) or 32% reduction (without LUC). The
fossil fuel resource of PLA cups become 36% lower than that of PP
cups. On the other hand, PLA still performs worse than PP in the other
four impact categories, where the EoL share was negligible.
EoL: End of Life
PLA: Polylactide
LCA: Life Cycle Assessment
LUCs: Land Use Changes
PET: Polyethylene terephthalate
PP: Polypropylene cups 215
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

216
 NEED FOR ED
Environmental problems like high population levels, rapid population growth and unequal
population distribution result in poverty, rapid population growth, environmental
deterioration. As such economic activities that were once perfectly acceptable and even
desirable but are now considered unacceptable because of their impacts on the natural
resource base (impacts of existing or future processes/products)

The WCED report of 1987, Our Common Future, emphasized that the size, density,
movement and growth rate of population cannot be influenced, if population control
efforts are being overwhelmed by adverse patterns of development

The need to shift the conventional focus of processes and products from utilitarian values
to environmental values.
217
 PRINCIPLES OF ED
1. Beside economic efficiency & feasibility, the design of a project, process or product must incorporate
environmental objectives.
2. The sustainability in the use of resources, including energy; the process used in the manufacturing of a product
or constructing a project; the product or project in operation; the product or project at the end of its use or
operation, i.e., the actions involved in discarding, recycling or dismantling the product or project must be a
part of the environmental objective
3. Also, restoration and enhancement of landscapes; dignity, comfort and safety of workers in workplaces; the
restoration and enhancement of ecosystem; fostering of human creativity and art.
4. The design of a project, process or product should proceed from its initiation by the conscious definition and
integration of environmental and other practical considerations.

218
SMART GROWTH OUTLINES FOR MITIGATION -EPA
The way we develop our communities has significant impacts on greenhouse gas emissions. Communities can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from development and redevelopment if they:
•Build compactly and use energy-efficient, green building techniques, which reduce emissions from both electricity
generation and transportation.
• Growing Cooler (PDF), a 2008 study published by the Urban Land Institute and partially funded by EPA,
concluded that compact development can reduce vehicle miles traveled by 20 to 40 percent compared to
conventional development. Based on the amount of development that will take place and the percentage of that
development that could reasonably be expected to be compact infill, the study estimated that compact development
could reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions by 7 to 10 percent in 2050.
• A subsequent study, Moving Cooler, found that a combination of more compact development and investments in
transit and other transportation options could reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transportation by 9 to 15
percent by 2050.
•Reuse existing infrastructure and buildings to take advantage of previous investments and the energy already used
to build them.
•Put homes, jobs, stores, parks, schools, and other destinations close to each other so that people can easily walk, bike,
use public transit, or drive shorter distances.
•Preserve green space, which can sequester CO2, by conserving ecologically valuable land and promoting development in
previously developed areas, which helps reduce pressure to build on undeveloped land. 219
 SMART GROWTH OUTLINES for adaptation -EPA
•Preserve large, contiguous areas of open space to better protect ecosystems that might be under
pressure from the changing climate. Open space preserved along water bodies can also absorb flood
waters and reduce flooding in developed areas.
•Encourage water- and energy-efficient buildings and land use patterns so that communities can continue
to thrive if energy prices rise. This strategy can also help communities and their residents better cope with
drought and extreme heat.
•Upgrade stormwater systems to better manage heavier storm flows, and consider using green
infrastructure to reduce the amount of runoff from paved surfaces.
•Encourage green roofs, parks, street trees, and other elements that can reduce ambient air temperatures
and filter pollutants from stormwater runoff and the air. Adding greenery along streets makes walking and
biking more comfortable and appealing.
•Design buildings with adaptation and resilience in mind
•Discourage building in areas that are currently or are projected to be more vulnerable to climate change-
related impacts.
•Determine which areas are both well-connected to existing development and less vulnerable to current
and projected climate change impacts such as wildfires, sea level rise and higher storm surges, and riverine
flooding, and encourage growth in these areas.

220
https://www.fairplanet.org/editors-pick/how-india-is-protecting-its-wetland-ecosystems/
221
 SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE-SINGAPORE RIVER

 Due to trade and

commerce in early 19th
century – waterways
became polluted with oil
and debris, as well as
organic & plastic wastes
due to rapid urbanization
along the bay

Helps mitigate climate

Neglecting sustainable infrastructure investments can Sustainable change, rising sea levels,
result in dire environmental and social impact. In some infrastructure extreme weather
Emerging Asian cities, rapid urbanization has led to occurrence. Also improves
traffic congestion, reduced green spaces, increased
waste generation and sinking land area, due to city’s health and liveability
excessive groundwater extraction.

https://www.infrastructureasia.org/Insights/Thought-Leadership-Sustainable-Infrastructure 222
 ECOSPACE
Singapore city’s
Gardens by the Bay
showcases hundreds of
acres of reclaimed
parkland in the city center
with tropical trees that
grow up to 165 feet. A
main attraction are 18
“supertrees” — from 80 to
160 feet tall — that are
powered by solar energy.

223
https://www.veenaworld.com/blog/gardens-by-the-bay-singapore-tickets-location-and-attractions
https://www.thearchaeologist.org/blog/chinampas-the-ancient-aztec-floating-gardens-that-hold-promise-for-future-urban-agriculture
224
 FLOATING NETHERLAND VILLAGE – A CALL FOR SUSTAINABILITY
 Self sufficient Building
 Solar panels and heat
pumps provide
heating
 Green roof in every
building
 Both grey and black
water conversion to
energy is considered
 The floating pontoon
structure rises with
the water level ideal
design for low-lying
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/02/netherlands-floating-village-schoonschip-density/
coastal cities
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226
 Success Story of ED in Industries

IBM Sweden designed glassware made from recycled cathode ray tubes (CRTs). The
face of the CRT comprises two thirds of the weight of the glass and does not contain
harmful lead. The result is that the majority of glass can be recycled into glassware.
The other parts, containing toxic materials, can be recycled into CRTs at IBM Holland in
the Netherlands. The results are cost-savings in recycled materials and greater
awareness among marketing staff regarding the value of recycled materials (Inga
Belmane. A Ecoinnovation: cathode ray tube recycling at IBM Sweden. @ Journal of
Sustainable Product Design, Issue 9, April 1999. Centre for Sustainable Product Design,
Surrey, UK).
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Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

LEED is internationally recognized green building certification system,

providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed
and built using strategies aimed at improving performance across all
concepts that include: energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions
reduction, improved indoor air quality, and resource conservation and
sensitivity to their impacts (i.e. material efficiency).

228
 ED for Development Planning & CC

• Migrations result in heavy stress on urban infrastructure thereby reducing overall quality of life. As urban
areas enjoy better connectivity, both transport and communication, a vicious circle starts. The process of
migration continues till the city expands in size and congestion
• Carrying capacity (CC) is defined as maximum population that can be supported in a given habitat without
permanently impairing the productivity of ecosystem(s) upon which that population subsists. For human
society, carrying capacity can be defined as the maximum rate of resource consumption and waste
discharge that can be sustained indefinitely in a defined planning region without progressively impairing
the bio-productivity and ecological integrity. Ecosystem carrying capacity provides the physical limits to
economic development.

229
• Since urban systems interface with natural systems, the concept of carrying capacity in this setting
needs enrichment in definition and interpretation. Thus, the basic elements involved in assessing the
carrying capacity hinge on the interrelation between resources and processes, which convert these
resources to desired outputs and waste products and residuals, which must be assimilated back into
the resource base with future effects on quantity and quality

The four dimensions that are relevant to the estimation of carrying capacity are: (i) The
stock of available resources to sustain rates of resource use in production. (ii) The
capacity of the environmental media to assimilate wastes and residuals from production
and consumption. (iii) The capacity of infrastructure resources (e.g., distribution and
delivery systems) to handle the flow of goods and services and resources used in
production. (iv) The effect of both resource use and production outputs on quality of life
230
 DOMAINS IN ECC FOR ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN PLANNING
SPATIAL DOMAIN: Regional delineation for analysis of carrying capacity must be based on consideration of the
functional elements of three general types of regional space: the ecological space, the economic space, and the
policy space. The study area for analysis within these three regional dimensions should fulfil the following
criteria:
(a) The study area should be relatively easy to identify and separate from other units. The study area should be
capable of being manipulated separately with a minimal effect on other units. The boundaries of the study
area should remain within, or resemble as close as possible, the less discrete boundaries of the ecosystem so
that broad management practices are applicable throughout the study area.
TEMPORAL DOMAIN: The temporal, i.e., time-frame, perspective (time-frame) is an important aspect of carrying
capacity study (e.g., development of internal combustion engines generating lower emission levels per RPM will
allow greater traffic volumes).
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IMPORTANCE OF CARRYING CAPACITY IN ED

An important aspect of carrying capacity assessment is the problem of measuring the outputs of
production processes. Production outputs may be divided into two classes: goods and services (social
indicators for human livelihood upliftment), and wastes and residuals (environmental indicators that
indicates quality, and assimilative and productive capacity of environment).
Planning for sustainable development calls for trade-offs between the desired production-consumption
levels through the exploitation of supportive capacity within its regenerative capacity and environmental
quality within the assimilative capacity of regional ecosystem

232
The supportive capacity of a region is the capacity of the ecosystems to provide resources
for various anthropogenic activities, i.e., human settlements/industries

Assimilative capacity is the maximum amount of waste discharge that can be allowed in an
environment without violating the designated use. In operational terms, assimilative
capacity can be defined as ratio of observed level of pollutant and the environmental
standard stipulated by the concerned authorities. Assimilative capacity is governed by
dilution, dispersion, phase transformation, deposition and absorption phenomena. These
phenomena are relatively local in nature.

233
 Indian Examples where ECC has been studied
These studies have helped in identification of limiting resources in the face of developmental
aspirations of the people of the region and suggest priority areas of action based on analysis of
indicators of carrying capacity for business-as-usual and preferred developmental scenarios.

 Ecologically fragile Doon Valley.

 Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka State. Uttara Kannada district, Karnataka State (rich in forest
cover)
 Environmentally critical national capital region.
 Industrially and environmentally sensitive Tapi Estuary.
 Industrialised and resource-rich Damodar River Basin.
 Coastal area with multi-sectoral development of Greater Kochi Region.

**Check Lecture 12 pdf for other information

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EMS STANDARD: ISO 14000 SERIES
• Introduction
• Implementation & Benefits

235
INTRODUCTION
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was formed in 1947
 The ISO promotes worldwide standardization to facilitate international commerce.
 in 1951, it published its first standard, Standard Reference Temperature for Industrial
Length Measurement to a variety of subjects ranging from screw threads and fasteners to
high-tech clean rooms
 ISO also developed the widely used quality management system (QMS) standards, i.e., the
ISO 9000 series.
 The ISO formed a Strategic Action Group on the Environment (SAGE) in 1991
 The ISO formed Technical Committee 207 (TC 207) in 1993. The TC 207 became responsible
for drafting the ISO 14000 series of standards
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KEY PRINCIPLE OF ISO

 Consensus: The views of all interested parties are taken into account, including
manufacturers, vendors, consumer groups, testing laboratories, governments,
engineering professionals and research organisations
 Industry-wide applicability: The goal is to draft standards that satisfy industries and
customers worldwide (ISO has no authority to impose its standards on any government
or organisation).
 Voluntary nature: All of the international standards developed are voluntary. Thus,
their acceptance by industry is market-driven and based on voluntary involvement of
all interests in the marketplace

Check pdf for other informations as applicable 237

BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING ISO 14001: AN INDIAN SCENARIO
Confederation of Indian Industries (CII) is the nodal agency for ISO 14000 in India. By 2001, over 350
organizations in India have established EMS conforming to ISO 14001.

 Environmental benefits: These include identification of new opportunities for environmental improvements and
improvement in resource conservation and waste minimization.
 Cost containment and cost savings: These include identification of new opportunities for cost savings and areas of
improvement.
 Regulatory compliance: This includes risk reduction and a lower rate of regulatory enforcement
 Competitiveness: This includes an increase in market share and a decrease in cost of production.
 International trade: This includes an increase in exportrelated business opportunities.
 Greening the suppliers: These include the opportunities for greening the supplier chain. (Note that this has been a
major thrust area for those firms who have a wide range of suppliers. At present, most firms generally do not include
environmental issues in their purchase contracts. Firms have to impart education/training and transfer of know-how,
before actually asking the supply chain to go green. Before long, the suppliers’ environmental performance will
become important for maintenance of quality and compliance of environmental standards.)
 Other benefits: These include achievement of commitment to good environmental performance at all levels, safe and
healthy working conditions as well as better housekeeping.
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Example 1 of establishment of EMS conforming to ISO 14001

The case of a mining organisation that maintains the heavy hydraulic machinery/vehicles used for its
excavation work in a workshop situated on top of a hill. As part of the maintenance, oil changes were
made and oil was carelessly being thrown on the land, thus contaminating it. Through the EMS, an
organisation-wide oil balance study was initiated and it was found that there was a large gap between the
oil received and the waste oil generated by the workshop. On a closer study, it was found that the gap
accounted for the oil spill on the land. Consequently, the operating practice was changed and trays were
installed to collect the waste oil. From the trays, the waste oil was transferred to drums and were sold.
This sale resulted in a revenue flow of Rs. 36 lakhs in the first year of the organisation’s EMS
implementation.

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Example 2 of establishment of EMS conforming to ISO 14001

The case of an electrical cable manufacturing organisation. This organisation makes

aluminum core cable with an XLPE (cross-linked polyethylene) coating, which is a black
hard plastic material. In the process of making this aluminum core, there was the
mechanical drawing of the wire from a metal block. This operation generates fine
aluminum dust and was inhaled by the workers in the plant (as this metal dust was not
contained), which caused respiratory problems and further led to the absenteeism of
the workers. Through the EMS, the organization decided to contain this waste
generation by encasing the metal drawing operation. The aluminum dust generated
was properly collected and sold to a local paint manufacturer who used it to
manufacture silver paint. 240
ECOMAPPING BY EMS 14001
• Introduction
• Implementation & Benefits

241
 Eco-mapping is a visual and easy-to-use tool which enables employees to
get involved in environmental management in a company

 Eco-mapping is a road map of a site, a shop floor, a workshop, etc., which

can lead to improved environmental management and which can provide
a solid basis for a more formal environmental management system
according to ISO or EMAS.

 Eco-maps can be used to determine: a site in its urban environmental

context; consumption of water and discharge of waste water; storage of
flammable, dangerous or hazardous substances in relation to
groundwater; emission of air pollutants and dust, odour and noise;
consumption of energy.
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HOW TO USE ECOMAP
Eco-mapping is done at end of the accounting year. It is updated once a year, or when the site
is renovated or the activities are extended. The materials needed are A4-sized papers and a
photocopy machine.

Mapping of the urban situation: Make a map of the site including car parks, access areas,
roads and the surrounding environment. The map should reflect the real situation.
Mapping of the site: Draw the outline of the site using a scale and showing the interior
spaces. This map should be copied and will be the basis for the work to be done. The
maps should show the real situation and should be simple, recognisable and in
proportion. They should have a date, a name and a reference. Certain objects such as
machines, boilers, etc., will have to be in order to orient you straight away. If a site covers
very different areas, mapping can be done for different areas separately and then merged.
Developing symbols: Symbols can be developed by using either hatched lines when the
problem to be studied is small or circle if the problem is large. The more serious the
problem the thicker the circle.
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The first pilot project in Estonia was done in year
2005. The goal of the project was to make an
overall analysis of current environmental situation
using Eco-mapping toolbox and establish a basis
for implementation of ISO 14001 to a small
enterprise. The two main activities of the
company, consisting of 14 workers, are freightage
services and vehicles’ maintenance and repair
works. There are eight trucks available for
transportation of friable materials: road metal of
different fractions, grit stones, soils and sand. The
company also owns a workshop for maintenance
and repair works with special equipment and
substances that are used for maintenance
services.
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245
https://www.cisco.com/c/
dam/en_us/about/ac79/
docs/urbanecomap/
factsheet.pdf

246
•DOI:
•10.1109/MCE.2016.2556879
247
•DOI:
•10.1109/MCE.2016.2556879
248
• Urban EcoMap is a landmark innovation and a key element of CUD’s Connected and
Sustainable Cities framework, the pilot project is a collaborative effort involving Cisco
IBSG—the global strategic consulting arm of Cisco—and San Francisco’s Department of
the Environment (SF Environment). The organizations are jointly applying an Urban
Services Platform approach toward which visionary cities and the ICT industry are
moving. Because cities produce 80 percent of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
worldwide, and are the major contributor to their nations’ economies, they present the
largest opportunity for innovation and social behavior changes

• Launched in 2009, Urban EcoMap provides urban communities with relevant data
regarding the primary GHG contributors—transportation, waste, and energy. Building
awareness, fostering a sense of community connection and responsibility, and providing
actions for citizens to take will enable the reduction of GHG in cities. It will support
decision-making for policymakers and business organizations, as well as for urban
design, development and operations, and the research of urban, earth, and social
scientists 249
The Urban Services Platform is based on an EcoSystem approach. EcoSystem
encompasses an eco-centric set of technologies and standards that allow for
interoperability of “eco applications” and devices. Much like the Internet, it is a
multi-layer stack of standards that defines how applications and devices consume
and share information. Applications publish (contribute) eco-data to EcoSystem, and
other applications can then discover and consume it. This allows for a single, global
system and, more important, a global “pulse” of the eco-health of our planet.

250
https://www.hcltech.com/
cloud/cisco

251
KEY FEATURES

● Discover Your City’s Neighborhoods: Urban EcoMap shows GHG emissions data, in
addition to displaying a set of transportation, energy, and waste indicators to assist
residents in visualizing both the specific actions they can take to fight climate change, and
the impact of those actions. Factors include alternative-fuel vehicle ownership, recycling,
and energy use / efficiency per household. All this information will be aggregated on a
neighborhood level, organized by the city’s zip codes, allowing users to highlight data that
can be directly compared by zip code as well as among cities.

252
 Take Climate Actions: Citizens have the ability to select climate-related actions to help
decrease the carbon footprint of their zip code and their city. Citizens can view and select
actions based on the level of effort required to make the change, the associated cost or
financial benefit, and the environmental impact of the action. Based on their selections,
citizens can take appropriate climate actions for transportation, energy, and waste, and
then share them with others. Additionally, resources are provided so that users can obtain
immediate access to the most useful, locally available tools and incentives to enable
change

253
BENEFITS
Citizen Benefits

 Brings the issue of climate change home by providing information about carbon sources and
environmental solutions on a local level
 Conveys the message that “solutions are closer than you think” by offering easy access to
resources that suggest effective options
 Provides a decision-making platform for individuals to set explicit goals according to personal
effort, cost savings, and environmental impact
 Creates confidence that, by taking these small steps, individuals are contributing to the big
solution by providing feedback on cumulative benefits / results
 Provides the ability to inspire others to take action
 Allows citizens to compare their cities’ climate-change actions with those of other cities 254
255
 Policymaker Benefits

● Provides citizens with access to concrete climate actions in their communities

● Improves decision-making support for energy efficiency and carbon emission
reductions
● Tracks the effectiveness of climate-action programs
● Shares experiences among other cities
● Enables cities around the world to calculate the carbon footprint of their communities
in a uniform way
● Provides third-party verified data that is compatible with internationally accepted
sustainability protocols
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 Innovation Partner Benefits

EcoSystem removes barriers to contributing and consuming eco-data. The open

standards will be defined by a consortium of individuals and companies that wish to
contribute. There is no single “EcoSystem”—it is an ever-changing, almost organic set of
solutions that communicates in a common language to achieve a common goal.
Partners Urban EcoMap San Francisco is a collaborative effort among the following
partners: ● City and County of San Francisco ● Cisco ● Arup ● CH2M HILL ● NASA ●
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

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