The Diencephalon

2nd part of Forebrain

The diencephalon extends from the brain stem to the cerebrum
and surrounds the third ventricle

it includes the
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus
Thalamus
 The thalamus, which measures about 3 cm (1.2 in.) in length
and makes up 80% of the diencephalon, consists of paired oval
masses of gray matter organized into nuclei with interspersed
tracts of white matter.

 A bridge of gray matter called the intermediate mass

(interthalamic adhesion) joins the right and left halves of the
thalamus .

 A vertical Y-shaped sheet of white matter called the internal

medullary lamina divides the gray matter of the right and left
sides of the thalamus.

 Axons that connect the thalamus and cerebral cortex pass

through the internal capsule, a thick band of white matter
lateral to the thalamus.
Based on their positions and functions, there are seven major
groups of nuclei on each side of the thalamus.

1. The anterior nucleus receives input from the hypothalamus

and sends output to the limbic system. It functions in emotions
and memory.

2. The medial nuclei receive input from the limbic system and
basal ganglia and send output to the cerebral cortex. They
function in emotions, learning, memory, and cognition (thinking
and knowing).

3. Nuclei in the lateral group receive input from the limbic

system, superior colliculi, and cerebral cortex and send output to
the cerebral cortex. The lateral dorsal nucleus functions in the
expression of emotions. The lateral posterior nucleus and
pulvinar nucleus help integrate sensory information.
4. Five nuclei are part of the ventral group.

The ventral anterior nucleus receives input from the basal ganglia and sends
output to motor areas of the cerebral cortex; it plays a role in movement control.

The ventral lateral nucleus receives input from the cerebellum and basal ganglia
and sends output to motor areas of the cerebral cortex; it also plays a role in
movement control.

The ventral posterior nucleus relays impulses for somatic sensations such as
touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle, temperature, pain, and proprioception
from the face and body to the cerebral cortex.

The lateral geniculate nucleus relays visual impulses for sight from the
retina to the primary visual area of the cerebral cortex.

The medial geniculate nucleus relays auditory impulses for hearing

from the ear to the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
5. Intralaminar nuclei lie within the internal medullary lamina
and make connections with the reticular formation, cerebellum,
basal ganglia, and wide areas of the cerebral cortex.

They function in arousal and integration of sensory and motor

information.

6. The midline nucleus forms a thin band adjacent to the third

ventricle and has a presumed function in memory and olfaction.

7. The reticular nucleus surrounds the lateral aspect of the

thalamus. This nucleus monitors, filters, and integrates activities
of other thalamic nuclei.
 Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus (hypo- under) is a small part of the diencephalon

located inferior to the thalamus. It is composed of a dozen or so
nuclei in four major regions:

1. The mammillary region, adjacent to the midbrain, is the most

posterior part of the hypothalamus. It includes the mammillary
bodies and posterior hypothalamic nuclei. The mammillary bodies are
two, small, rounded projections that serve as relay stations for
reflexes related to the sense of smell.

2. The tuberal region, the widest part of the hypothalamus, includes

the dorsomedial nucleus, ventromedial nucleus, and arcuate nucleus,
plus the stalk like infundibulum, which connects the pituitary gland
to the hypothalamus.
3. The supraoptic region lies superior to the optic chiasm (point of
crossing of optic nerves) and contains the paraventricular nucleus,
supraoptic nucleus, anterior hypothalamic nucleus, and
suprachiasmatic nucleus.
Axons from the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei form the
hypothalamohypophyseal tract, which extends through the
infundibulum to the posterior lobe of the pituitary.

4. The preoptic region lies anterior to the supraoptic region. it

participates with the hypothalamus in regulating certain
autonomic activities. The preoptic region contains the medial and
lateral preoptic nuclei.
The hypothalamus controls many body activities and is one of
the major regulators of homeostasis.
 Epithalamus

The epithalamus is the most dorsal portion of the diencephalon

and forms the roof of the third ventricle.

The epithalamus is a small region superior and posterior to the

thalamus. It consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei.

The pineal gland is about the size of a small pea and protrudes
from the posterior midline of the third ventricle. The pineal
gland is considered part of the endocrine system because it
secretes the hormone melatonin.

The habenular nuclei, are involved in olfaction, especially

emotional responses to odors.
Cranial Nerves
Three cranial nerves (I, II, and VIII) carry axons of sensory
neurons and thus are called sensory nerves.

Five cranial nerves (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII) contain only axons of
motor neurons as they leave the brain stem and are called
motor nerves.

The other four cranial nerves (V, VII, IX, and X) are
mixed nerves because they contain axons of both sensory
and motor neurons.
Olfactory (I) Nerve

The olfactory (I) nerve is entirely sensory; it contains

axons that conduct nerve impulses for olfaction, the
sense of smell.

Arises in olfactory mucosa, passes through foramina in

the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and ends in the
olfactory bulb.

The olfactory tract extends via two pathways

to olfactory areas of cerebral cortex.
Optic (II) Nerve

The optic (II) nerve is entirely sensory; it contains axons that

conduct nerve impulses for vision.

Arises in the retina of the eye, passes through the optic foramen,
forms the optic chiasm and then the optic tracts, and terminates
in the lateral geniculate nuclei of the thalamus.

From the thalamus, axons extend to the primary visual area of

the cerebral cortex.
Oculomotor (III) Nerve

The oculomotor (III) nerve is a motor cranial nerve .

Originates in the midbrain and passes through the superior

orbital fissure.

Axons of somatic motor neurons innervate the levator palpebrae

superioris muscle of the upper eyelid and four extrinsic eyeball
muscles (superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, and
inferior oblique).

Parasympathetic axons innervate the ciliary muscle of the eyeball

and the circular muscles (sphincter pupillae) of the iris.
Trochlear (IV) Nerve

The trochlear (IV) nerve is a motor cranial nerve.

It is the smallest of the 12 cranial nerves and is the only one that
arises from the posterior aspect of the brain stem.

Originates in the midbrain and passes through the superior orbital

fissure.

Innervates the superior oblique muscle, an extrinsic eyeball

muscle.
Trigeminal (V) Nerve

The trigeminal (V) nerve , the largest of the cranial nerves, is a mixed cranial
nerve.
Originates/ends in the pons

Sensory portion: Consists of three branches, all of which end in the pons.

The ophthalmic nerve (the smallest branch, enters the orbit via the superior
orbital fissure.

The maxillary nerve (maxilla upper jaw bone) is intermediate in size between the
ophthalmic and mandibular nerves and enters the foramen rotundum.

The mandibular nerve (mandibula lower jaw bone), the largest branch, exits
through the foramen ovale.

Motor portion: Somatic motor axons of the trigeminal nerve are part of the
mandibular nerve and supply muscles of mastication. These motor neurons
control chewing movements.
Abducens (VI) Nerve

The abducens (VI) nerve is a motor cranial nerve.

Originates in the pons, passes through the superior orbital

fissure, and innervates the lateral rectus muscle, an
extrinsic eyeball muscle.
Facial (VII) Nerve

The facial (VII) nerve is a mixed cranial nerve.

Sensory portion: Arises from taste buds on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue,
passes through the stylomastoid foramen and geniculate ganglion (located beside
the facial nerve), and ends in the pons.

From there, axons extend to the thalamus, and then to the gustatory areas
of the cerebral cortex. Also contains axons from proprioceptors in muscles of
the face and scalp.

Motor portion: Originates in the pons and passes through the stylomastoid
foramen. Axons of somatic motor neurons innervate facial, scalp, and
neck muscles. Parasympathetic axons innervate lacrimal, sublingual,
submandibular, nasal, and palatine glands.
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve

The vestibulocochlear (VIII) nerve was formerly known as the acoustic or auditory
nerve.

It is a sensory cranial nerve and has two branches,

Vestibular branch: Arises in the semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle and
forms the vestibular ganglion.

Axons end in the pons and cerebellum.

Cochlear branch: Arises in the spiral organ (organ of Corti), forms the spiral
ganglion, passes through nuclei in the medulla, and ends in the thalamus.

Axons synapse with thalamic neurons that relay impulses to the primary
auditory area of the cerebral cortex.
Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve

The glossopharyngeal (IX) nerve is a mixed cranial nerve.

Sensory axons of the glossopharyngeal nerve arise from taste buds and
somatic sensory receptors on the posterior one-third of the tongue, from
proprioceptors in swallowing muscles, from baroreceptors in the carotid
sinus, and from chemoreceptors in the carotid body near the carotid
arteries .

Axons pass through the jugular foramen and end in the medulla.

Axons of motor neurons in the glossopharyngeal nerve arise

in nuclei of the medulla and exit the skull through the jugular
foramen.
Axons of somatic motor neurons innervate the stylopharyngeus muscle, a
muscle of the pharynx that elevates the larynx during swallowing.
Parasympathetic axons innervate the parotid salivary gland.
Vagus (X) Nerve

The vagus (X) nerve is a mixed cranial nerve that is distributed from the head
and neck into the thorax and abdomen.

Sensory portion: Consists of axons from small number of taste buds in the
epiglottis and pharynx, proprioceptors in muscles of the neck and throat,
baroreceptors in the arch of the aorta, chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies
near the arch of the aorta, and visceral sensory receptors in most organs of the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Axons pass through the jugular foramen and end in the medulla and pons.

Motor portion: Originates in medulla and passes through the jugular foramen.
Axons of somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles in the throat and
neck.
Parasympathetic axons innervate smooth muscle in the airways,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, most of large intestine, and gallbladder;
cardiac muscle in the heart; and glands of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract.
Accessory (XI) Nerve

The accessory (XI) nerve is a motor cranial nerve.

Originates in the anterior gray horn of the first five cervical

segments of the spinal cord and emerges laterally from the
cord and then ascends through the foramen magnum into
the cranial cavity.

It then arches inferiorly to leave the jugular foramen and

supply sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles to
coordinate head movements..
Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve

The hypoglossal (XII) nerve is a motor cranial nerve.

Originates in the medulla, passes through the hypoglossal canal,

and supplies muscles of the tongue.