e.g.

Water, Diamond
Cl2, H2, HCl
CH4, O2

Delocalised electrons

Giant Covalent Structure

Simple molecules
•High melting and boiling points, hard
•Low melting and boiling points
• Strong covalent bonds
• Weak intermolecular forces
Graphite only:
•Does not conduct electricity
Covalent Bonding Conducts electricity, soft
No charge and slippery between layers.
Non-metals sharing elections

C2 Chemistry
An atom:
Number of Protons = Number of Electrons
Mass number = Protons + Neutrons Periodic table arranges elements by
ATOMIC NUMBER (proton number/the

OIL RIG small one)

Pure Impure copper
copper (copper ore)

Max 2 electrons
Max 8 electrons Protons and neutrons
Oxidation is lose (of electrons) The number of outer shell electrons match the
Cu 2+
Describe this!
Reduction is gain (of electrons) Copper group the element is found in.
Impurities: include gold purification E.g. Lithium 2,1 is a group 1 element.
and silver (can be sold)

both have a mass of 1 Electrolysis: Metallic Bonding

Splitting up a substance using Sea of
E.g. 2,8,8 (Argon)
ISOTOPES electricity
Half equations
delocalised
are atoms of the electrons
Electrolysis needs:
same element with When there are 2 Can carry a
Ionic Bonding different numbers of possible products
•2 electrodes
•An electrolyte
charge so
neutrons The less reactive forms
(Ionic or molten substance) metals
at the electrode
•A power supply conduct
Ions move toward oppositely charged electrodes electricity
Lose or gain an
electron Used for: Disinfectants, bleach and plastics Metal ions only arranged in layers
Group 1 Get a charge +/- ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION
Group 7 Used for: Margarine and HCl
Attract one another! Brine: between
Salt
+IONS and ELECTRONS
water
Electrolysis
of Brine Metal ions slide over one another
Used for: making them MALLEABLE
Bleach, paper
and soap Metals conduct HEAT well
Giant Lattice Structure
Always metals with non-metals As a solid: High melting and Boiling Point
+ ION and – ION attracted by Conducts electricity when melted or dissolved:
Ions move freely and carry a charge
NANO-
STRONG ELECTROSTATIC FORCES Means REALLY REALLY REALLY small !!!!!
The Haber Process Nitrogen from the air Low temperatures
Relative formula Mass
Making Ammonia Hydrogen from natural gases will increase the
Add the mass of each atom in the
yield of exothermic
exothermic reactions. formula together
endothermic High temperatures e.g. CaCO3
will decrease the
Un-reacted gases recycled

yield of exothermic
4 molecules 2 molecules reactions. 40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 100
We compare the mass of

se
IfIf temperature
temperatures areare
Conditions: Moles any atom to Carbon 12

o mi
tootoolow
low a reaction
reaction
•450oC will
will be
be too slow.
too slow. 1 mole of any substance
mpr •200 atmospheres
contains the same number of Mass of element
A Co
•Iron Catalyst Increasing pressure particles. (6.02x10 23) Total mass of compound x 100
will increase the yield
Separate out Ammonia using it’s on the side with less Relative atomic mass or formula = Percentage Mass
boiling point (it condenses) molecules. mass in grams is equal to one mole.
BUT e.g. 12g of carbon is one mole of e.g. % mass of carbon (12) in
Used for Fertilisers, High pressures are carbon ethane C2H6 (30)
expensive. (12 + 12 = 24
)
Explosives & Dyes All the carb
on
24 / 30 x 100 = 80%
Make sure you can Too removed a solid (s) from a
explain this in reverse! reaction you FILTER it out !
Exothermic reactions give out heat to
the surroundings(get hotter) e.g. Respiration & Combustion If you reaction gives you a
When a reaction forms a dissolved product (aq) instead,
Endothermic reactions take in heat SOILD(s) its called a you EVAPOURATE it out !
from the surroundings (get colder) e.g. Photosynthesis PRECIPITATE
We can measure the rate of a
reaction by looking at how fast solid
on e r
e.g. Sulfuric Acid + Magnesium -> Magnesium sulfate+ Hydrogen
Collision Theory
eacti the oth e.g. Nitric Acid + Copper Oxide -> Copper nitrate + Water reactants are used up, how quickly
R
r s i bleothermic ainc d reaction The rate of a reaction is gas is produced or how quickly light
e Acid Salt
Rev l be end exothermbackwar
d speed up by increasing the: is blocked (the disappearing cross)
wil be and •Temperature
way will forward al rates For this:
Hydrochloric When we increase the concentration/surface
One m e u
q Anything that's not a Chloride •Surface area

IMPORTANT
e
syst ccur at Acid area we increase the frequency of particles
sed o metal on its own is a base
In a clo •Concentration colliding and reacting. Speeding up the
Acid + Metal Salt + Hydrogen Sulfuric Acid Sulfate •Or by adding a CATALYSIS reaction.
Catalysts speed up reactions without being used up
Acid + Base Salt + Water When we increase the temperature the
Increase in pressure is the
Nitric Acid Nitrate particles move faster, they are more likely to
Acids & Bases (Alkalis)
same as increase in
concentration
collide and do so with sufficient energy to
Acids – H+ An increase of 10oC
react. Speeding up the reaction.
Alkalis – OH- doubles the rate of a
reaction
For a reaction to take place we have to have
Bases NEUTRALISE acids
Alkalis are soluble bases
pH Scale the minimum amount of energy needed
Find the pH using Universal Indicator The ACTIVATION ENERGY
 Molecular Formula & Balanced Equations Percentage Yield
Empirical Formula This is used to compare our actual yield with our
theoretical yield.
Molecular Formula : The actual number of atoms of
each element in an individual molecule Amount of product actually produced
Empirical Formula : The simplest whole number ratio Maximum possible yield (Theoretical yield) x 100
of the elements in the molecule
e.g. 200
Calculating the Empirical Formula 275 x 100 = 72.73 %
A balanced equation has the same number of
1) Use the same table and method given for calculating atoms for each element on both sides Its rare to get 100% yield
reacting masses but remove the ratio row. This is because some products can be left in
The question will either provide the grams of each We can use this to find the ratio of moles that are apparatus or separating products from reactants is
element or the percentage. Assume percentages are needed to react with one another difficult.
the same figure in grams. e.g. 1 CH4 molecule reacts with 2 O2 molecules Sometimes it’s not everything reacts to begin with.
e.g. 12% = 12g
1:2 ratio

Question: A substance contains When doing an experiment if This is useful if we want Atom Economy
24% carbon and 64% hydrogen. we know the grams used and to calculate how much This calculates the amount of starting material
Calculate the its empirical the Molecular/Formula Mass g product we would get that ends up as useful products
The aim is always for the highest atom economy possible
formula. we can calculate the moles from a specific amount
e.g. In 24 g of carbon which Grams of reactant
Chemical Carbon Hydrogen has an Mr of 12 there would THEORETICAL YIELD Formula mass of useful products
Formula mass of all products x 100
Grams 24 64 be 2 moles of carbon. n
24/12 = 2
Mr
Mr 12 16 Moles Molecular/ e.g. 44
Formula Mass (44 + 18 +18) x 100 = 55 %
Moles 2 4
Calculating Theoretical yield High atom economy conserves resources, reduces
2) To get the simplest ratio Question: How much CO2 would be produced by burning 100g of pollution and maximises profits
divide all moles by the Methane (CH4) ?
smallest calculated value
2/2 = 4/2 = Chemical CH4 CO2 4) Now you have the Mr
1) Put in the things you
and the moles of CO2
1 : 2 already know. You were Ratio 1 1 All figures in
you can use the triangle
This gives you the number of given the grams of
to calculate the grams
example calculations
each element present and the methane in the Grams 100 ? refer to the burning
question. And can that will be produced.
empirical formula of methane in
calculate the Mr using Mr 16 44
C H2
the periodic table. 44 x 6..25 = 275 oxygen as shown in
If you were told the compound had a mass of 28 you
Moles 6.25 6.25 the balanced
could calculate the molecular formula
2) Use the triangle to 3) Use the ratio from balanced equation to provide the Answer: 100g of equation
The Mr of CH2 is 14
28 /14 = 2 calculate the moles or methane would make
Therefore the molecular formula must be double the moles of CO2 275 g of CO2
empirical one C2H4
methane used.
1:1 6.25 : 6.25