• Unit I Wireless Channels:

• Large scale path loss – Path loss models: Free Space and Two-Ray models
- Link Budget design – Small scale fading- Parameters of mobile
multipath channels – Time dispersion parameters- Coherence bandwidth –
Doppler spread & Coherence time, Fading due to Multipath time delay
spread – flat fading – frequency selective fading – Fading due to Doppler
spread – fast fading – slow fading.
WHAT IS WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

• Wireless communications is the transmission of voice and data without

cable or wires
• Examples of Wireless Devices
• Cordless phones are wireless devices, as are TV remote controls, radios,
and GPS systems. Other wireless devices include phones, tablets,
Bluetooth mice and keyboards, wireless routers, and most devices that
don't use wires to transmit information.
 Large scale path loss
• Path loss, which measures the loss of energy of a wave propagating
between the transmitter and the receiver, is the main parameter in the
design of wireless networks.
• Propagation models are focused on predicting the average received signal
strength at a given distance from the transmitter, as well as the variability
of the signal strength in close spatial proximity to a particular location.
• Propagation models that predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary
transmitter-receiver (TR) separation distance are useful in estimating the
radio coverage area of a transmitter and are called large-scale propagation
models.
• As the mobile moves away from the transmitter over much larger
distances, the local average received signal will gradually decrease, and it
is this local average signal level that is predicted by large-scale
propagation models. Typically, the local average received power is
computed by averaging signal measurements over a measurement track of
5ߣ to 40 ߣ.
 Free-Space Propagation Model
• Free space propagation model is used to predict the received signal
strength when transmitter and receiver have clear, unobstructed Line Of
Sight path between them.
• The free space propagation model assumes a transmit antenna and a
receive antenna to be located in an otherwise empty environment. Neither
absorbing obstacles nor reflecting surfaces are considered. In particular,
the influence of the earth surface is assumed to be entirely absent.
• In free space radio signals propagate as light does i.e., they follow a
straight line. If such a straight line exists between a sender and a receiver
it is called line-of-sight (LOS).Even if no matter exists between the sender
and the receiver, the signal still experiences the free space loss. The
received power Pr is proportional to 1/d2 with d being the distance
between sender and receiver (inverse square ).
• The received power decays as a function of T-R separation distance raised
to some power. Path Loss: Signal attenuation as a positive quantity
measured in dB and defined as the difference (in dB) between the
effective transmitted power and received power.
• Free space power received by a receiver antenna separated from a
radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by Friis free space
equation:
• Free Space Model:
• The free space model predicts that received power decays as a function of
the T-R separation
• The free space power received by a receiver antenna which is separated
from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the Friis
free space equation:
 Two Ray Ground Reflection Model
• Two ray model considers both the direct path and a ground reflected
propagated path between transmitter and receiver.
• A two-ray model, which consists of two overlapping waves at the receiver,
one direct path and one reflected wave from the ground.
• The total received E-field ETOT is the result of the direct line of sight
component ELOS and the ground reflected component Eg.
• Referring to Figure (above),ht is the height of the transmitter and hr is the
height of the receiver. If E0is the free space electric field (in V/m) at a
reference distance d0 from the transmitter then for d>d0,
• In wireless communication, the two-ray ground reflection model is a
simplified propagation model often used to analyze signal propagation in
outdoor environments. This model assumes that a transmitted signal
propagates directly from the transmitter to the receiver, as well as via a
ground-reflected path. Here's a breakdown of the key components and
assumptions of the two-ray model:
• Reflected Path: In addition to the direct path, the signal also travels from the
transmitter to the receiver after reflecting off the ground surface. This path represents
the ground-reflected component of the signal.
• Assumptions:
• Perfect reflection: The ground surface is assumed to perfectly reflect the signal, meaning no
absorption or scattering occurs.
• Flat Earth assumption: The model assumes a flat Earth, which is a simplification suitable for short-
range communication or when the curvature of the Earth is negligible over the propagation distance.
• No obstacles: The model assumes no obstacles (e.g., buildings, trees) between the transmitter and
the receiver that could block or scatter the signal.
• Propagation Loss: The received signal power is the combination of the
powers received along both the direct and reflected paths. Due to the
longer path length of the reflected path, it generally experiences greater
attenuation compared to the direct path.
• Received Signal Strength: The received signal strength at the receiver is
the sum of the powers of the direct and reflected paths, which can be
expressed mathematically as:
Pr​=Pt​(d2Gt​Gr​​+(2d+h)2Gt​Gr​​)
Where:
•��Pr​is the received power.
•��Pt​is the transmitted power.
•��Gt​and ��Gr​are the gains of the transmitter and
receiver antennas, respectively.
•�d is the direct path distance.
•ℎh is the height of the antenna above the ground.
• Diversity Gain: One advantage of the two-ray model is that it provides
diversity gain by utilizing both the direct and reflected paths. This can
improve the reliability of the communication link, especially in scenarios
where one of the paths experiences fading or attenuation.
• Overall, while the two-ray ground reflection model is a simplified
representation of real-world propagation, it provides valuable insights into
the behavior of wireless signals in outdoor environments, particularly in
scenarios with clear line-of-sight paths and flat terrain.
 Link Budget design
• A link budget is a systematic way of accounting for all of the gains and
losses in a telecommunication system. It is crucial in the design of
wireless communication systems to ensure reliable and efficient
communication. Here's how you can design a link budget:
• Define System Requirements: Understand the requirements of your communication system, including
the desired coverage area, data rate, modulation scheme, frequency band, and quality of service (QoS)
parameters.
• Identify Key Parameters:
• Transmitter Parameters: Transmitted power (��Pt​), antenna gain (��Gt​), and any losses in the
transmitter chain.
• Propagation Losses: Account for free-space path loss, terrain losses, and atmospheric losses based on
the operating frequency and environment.
• Receiver Parameters: Receiver sensitivity (�minSmin​), receiver noise figure (��NF), and antenna
gain (��Gr​).
• Other Losses: Cable losses, connector losses, and miscellaneous losses.
• Calculate Path Loss:
• Use appropriate path loss models such as the Friis transmission equation
or empirical models like the Okumura-Hata or COST231 models
depending on the operating environment (urban, suburban, rural, etc.).
• Consider factors like distance, frequency, antenna heights, and
environmental conditions.
• Transmitter (Tx) and Receiver (Rx): The communication system
consists of a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter sends out
electromagnetic waves, and the receiver picks up these waves.
• Direct Path: The signal travels directly from the transmitter to the
receiver without reflection. This path represents the line-of-sight (LOS)
component of the signal.
• Calculate Transmit Power: Determine the required transmit power based
on the path loss and receiver sensitivity. Use the link margin to account
for fading, shadowing, and other uncertainties.
 SMALL SCALE FADING
• In wireless communication, fading is a phenomenon in which the strength and
quality of a radio signal fluctuate over time and distance. Fading is caused by a
variety of factors, including multipath propagation, atmospheric conditions,
and the movement of objects in the transmission path.
• Fading can have a significant impact on the performance of wireless
communication systems, particularly those that operate in high-frequency
bands.
• Small Scale Fading
• Small-scale fading is a common issue in wireless communication.
• It happens when a signal is transmitted from a transmitter to a receiver
and it experiences multiple signal paths due to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering from objects in the environment.
• These signal paths can cause interference and distortion to the signal,
resulting in fluctuations of the signal strength at the receiver.
• Small-scale fading is called “small-scale” because the variations occur over short
distances, such as a few centimeters to a few meters.
• Small-scale fading can happen very quickly, sometimes in microseconds or less.
• It is primarily caused by the multipath propagation of the signal.
• Overall, small-scale fading is a common issue in wireless communication that
affects the quality of the received signal. However, with proper mitigation
techniques, it is possible to maintain reliable communication even in the presence
of small-scale fading.
 Multipath delay spread

• Multipath delay spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when a

transmitted signal takes multiple paths to reach the receiver.
• The different components of the signal can arrive at the receiver at different times,
causing interference and rapid variations in signal amplitude and phase.
• Multipath delay spread can cause Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI), where symbols in
the transmitted signal overlap and interfere with each other, leading to errors in the
received signal.
• The root means square (RMS) delay spread is a measure of the dispersion
of the signal and determines the frequency-selective characteristics of the
channel.
• A higher RMS delay spread indicates a more frequency-selective channel,
while a lower RMS delay spread indicates a flatter, more frequency-
invariant channel.
• Multipath delay spread can be mitigated by using techniques such as
equalization, diversity, and adaptive modulation.
• Equalization techniques are used to compensate for the time dispersion
caused by multipath delay spread.
• Diversity techniques are used to combine multiple signal paths to mitigate
the effects of fading.
• Adaptive modulation techniques are used to adjust the modulation scheme
and data rate based on the channel conditions, allowing the system to
adapt to changes in the channel and maintain a reliable communication
link.
 Doppler Spread

• Doppler spread is a type of small-scale fading that occurs when there is

relative motion between the transmitter and the receiver.
• The relative motion causes a shift in the frequency of the transmitted
signal, known as the Doppler shift.
• The Doppler shift causes different frequency components of the signal to
arrive at the receiver with different phases and amplitudes.
• This results in rapid variations in signal amplitude and phase, which can
cause fading and errors in the received signal.
• The Doppler spread is a measure of the rate of change of the Doppler shift
and determines the time-varying characteristics of the channel.
• A higher Doppler spread indicates a faster time variation in the channel,
while a lower Doppler spread indicates a slower time variation.
• Doppler spread can be mitigated by using techniques such as equalization,
diversity, and adaptive modulation.
• Equalization techniques are used to compensate for the time dispersion
caused by Doppler spread.
• Diversity techniques are used to combine multiple signal paths to mitigate
the effects of fading.
• Adaptive modulation techniques are used to adjust the modulation scheme
and data rate based on the channel conditions, allowing the system to
adapt to changes in the channel and maintain a reliable communication
link.
• Doppler spread is an important consideration in the design of wireless
communication systems, particularly for mobile applications where there
is often significant relative motion between the transmitter and the
receiver.
PARAMETERS OF MOBILE MULTIPATH
CHANNELS
• Mobile multipath channels are characterized by several parameters that
describe the behavior of signals as they propagate through the wireless
medium. Some of the key parameters include:
• Time dispersion parameters The time dispersive properties of wide band
multipath channels are most commonly quantified by their mean excess
delay and rms delay spread. The mean excess delay is the first moment of
the power delay profile and is defined as
• These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal arriving at
the receiver at τo = 0. Typical values of rms delay spread are on the order
of microseconds in outdoor mobile radio channels and on the order of
nanoseconds in indoor radio channels.
• Note that the rms delay spread and mean excess delay are defined from a
single power delay profile which is the temporal or spatial average of
consecutive impulse response
• measurements collected and averaged over a local area. Typically, many
measurements are made at many local areas in order to determine a
statistical range of multipath channel parameters for a mobile
communication system over a large-scale area .
• The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power delay profile is defined
to be the time delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below
the maximum.
 COHERENCE BANDWIDTH
• It is a measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat(i.e. channel passes all spectral components with equal gain
and linear phase).
• It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread. Two sinusoids with
frequency separation greater than Bc are affected quite differently by the
channel. If we define Coherence(consistency) Bandwidth (BC) as the
range of frequencies over which the frequency correlation is above 0.9,
then
• Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel impulse
response is essentially invariant. If the symbol period of the baseband
signal (reciprocal of the baseband signal bandwidth) is greater the
coherence time, then the signal will distort(alter), since channel will
change during the transmission of the signal.
 TIME DISPERSION PARAMETERS
• In wireless communication systems, time dispersion refers to the
phenomenon where a transmitted signal spreads out over time due to
various factors such as multipath propagation, reflections, and scattering
in the transmission medium.
• Time dispersion can cause inter-symbol interference (ISI), where symbols
from one bit period interfere with symbols from adjacent bit periods,
leading to errors in data transmission. To mitigate the effects of time
dispersion, various parameters are considered:
• Delay Spread: Delay spread is a measure of the time difference between the arrival
of the earliest and latest significant signal components at the receiver. It
characterizes the spread of signal energy over time due to multipath propagation.
Large delay spreads increase the likelihood of ISI and can degrade system
performance.
• Coherence Bandwidth: Coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over
which the channel response remains relatively constant. It is inversely related to the
delay spread. A wider coherence bandwidth implies a shorter delay spread and vice
versa. Designing communication systems to operate within the coherence bandwidth
helps mitigate the effects of time dispersion.
• Channel Correlation Time: Channel correlation time is the time duration over which
the channel response remains correlated. It is related to the coherence time of the
channel. Short channel correlation times imply fast fading channels, while long
correlation times imply slow fading channels. Understanding the channel correlation
time helps in adapting modulation and coding schemes to suit the channel conditions.
• Doppler Spread: Doppler spread is caused by the relative motion between the
transmitter, receiver, and scatterers in the environment. It results in the spreading of the
signal spectrum due to the Doppler effect. Doppler spread is proportional to the relative
velocity between the transmitter and receiver and can cause frequency-selective fading,
which is closely related to time dispersion.
• Rake Receiver: A rake receiver is a technique used to combat the effects
of multipath propagation by combining multiple delayed replicas of the
received signal. Each replica corresponds to a different propagation path.
By combining these replicas, the rake receiver can mitigate the effects of
time dispersion and improve the reliability of communication
 DOPPLER SPREAD & COHERENCE
TIME
• Doppler Spread:
• Doppler spread refers to the frequency spread caused by the relative motion
between the transmitter, receiver, and scatterers in the propagation
environment. As a mobile terminal moves, the relative velocity between the
transmitter and receiver causes a frequency shift in the received signal due to
the Doppler effect. This shift results in a spread of frequencies, known as the
Doppler spread.
• Effect on Communication: Doppler spread causes frequency-selective
fading, where different frequency components of the signal experience
varying levels of attenuation and phase shifts. This can lead to distortion
and degradation of the received signal, particularly in high-mobility
scenarios.
• Coherence Time:
• Coherence time is the duration over which the channel response remains
relatively constant. It is inversely proportional to the Doppler spread. In
other words, higher Doppler spreads result in shorter coherence times, and
vice versa.
• Effect on Communication: Coherence time is a critical parameter for designing
communication systems, especially for mobile applications. Understanding the
coherence time helps in selecting appropriate modulation schemes, coding techniques,
and channel estimation methods to adapt to the varying channel conditions caused by
mobility-induced Doppler spread.
• In summary, Doppler spread and coherence time are closely related parameters that
characterize the effects of mobility on wireless communication channels. Doppler
spread introduces frequency variations due to relative motion, while coherence time
quantifies the duration over which the channel remains predictable. These parameters
are essential for designing robust and reliable mobile communication systems.
 FADING DUE TO MULTIPATH TIME
DELAY SPREAD
• Multipath propagation, an inherent feature of a mobile communications
channel, results in a received signal that is dispersed in time. Each path
has its own delay and the time dispersion leads to a form of intersymbol
interference.
• Delay spread is a measure of the multipath profile of a mobile
communications channel. It is generally defined as the difference between
the time of arrival of the earliest component (e.g., the line-of-sight wave if
there exists) and the time of arrival of the latest multipath component.
• Delay spread is a random variable, and the standard deviation is a
common metric to measure it. This measure is widely known as the root-
mean-square delay spread στ.
 FLAT FADING
• The wireless channel is said to be flat fading if it has constant gain and
linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater than the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
• In this type of fading all the frequency components of the received signal
fluctuate in same proportions simultaneously. It is also known as non-
selective fading.
• The effect of flat fading is seen as decrease in SNR. These flat fading
channels are known as amplitude varying channels or narrowband
channels.
• Flat fading is typically encountered in environments where there are
minimal multipath effects, such as in free space or over short distances
where the signal encounters few obstacles. In such scenarios, the received
signal can be characterized by a single complex gain, making the channel
relatively easy to equalize.
• Flat fading simplifies the design of communication systems because it
allows for the use of simple equalization techniques, such as zero-forcing
equalization or matched filtering, to mitigate the effects of channel
distortion
 FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING
• Frequency-selective fading, also known as frequency-selective or dispersive
fading, is a phenomenon in wireless communication systems where different
frequency components of a transmitted signal experience varying levels of
attenuation and phase shift as they propagate through the communication
channel.
• This variation in attenuation and phase across the frequency spectrum results
from multipath propagation, where multiple delayed versions of the
transmitted signal arrive at the receiver with different path lengths and phase
offsets.
• A consequence of frequency selective fading is intersymbol interference
where symbols received over the direct or the shortest reflecting paths are
interfered with by previous symbols arriving at the same time over longer
delay paths. Frequency selective fading is reduced by equalization, where
a digital filter in the receiver counteracts the effects of the channel.
 FADING DUE TO DOPPLER SPREAD
• This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals traveling along
different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different
rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different
signal components contributing to a signal fading channel tap is known as
the Doppler spread.
• Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each
changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on
whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such
channels have a very short coherence time.
 FAST FADING
• Fast fading, also known as fast channel fading, refers to rapid fluctuations
in the received signal strength or phase over short periods of time,
typically on the order of milliseconds or microseconds.
• This rapid variation occurs due to changes in the propagation
environment, such as movement of the transmitter, receiver, or objects in
the surrounding environment, causing the characteristics of the
communication channel to change quickly.
• Fast Fading results due to following:
➨High Doppler Spread
➨Coherence Time < Symbol Period

• ➨Channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol duration.

➨It occurs for very low data rates.
 SLOW FADING
• Slow fading, also known as large-scale fading or shadowing, refers to the
gradual variations in the received signal strength over relatively long
distances or time scales, typically on the order of seconds to minutes or
longer.
• Unlike fast fading, which involves rapid fluctuations in signal strength or
phase, slow fading manifests as smooth and gradual changes in signal
strength due to the spatial or temporal characteristics of the propagation
environment.
• Low Doppler Spread
➨Coherence Time >> Symbol Period

• ➨Impulse response changes much slower than the transmitted signal.